Introduction
The extraction and exploitation of various mineral resources is vital in the global economy, providing the raw materials necessary for various industries. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Australia are two countries that significantly influence the global mineral supply chain. The DRC, situated in the heart of Africa, is regarded as a significant global powerhouse for its abundant mineral reserves, which include essential components like Coltan and Cobalt (Geenen & Hönke, 2014). These minerals are vital in producing modern ICT devices, powering the global technology industry while also playing a significant role in supporting the green economy. Similarly, Australia, as a significant mining powerhouse, boasts of valuable mineral resources such as iron ore and coal, which have played a vital role in attaining its economic prosperity. While both countries have many minerals, their mineral resource extraction and environmental sustainability approaches vary considerably. Such differences are based on the distinct environmental conditions, different policies and implementation strategies, and the effectiveness of their governance structures, all of which can be evaluated based on ethical and environmental considerations.
This research’s primary purpose is to comprehensively assess the impact of mining activities in the DRC and Australia. The research seeks to evaluate the challenges and the impact of mineral resource extraction on these two geographically distant countries while examining their ethical dimensions. Furthermore, the research compares both countries’ environmental policies and governance structures. By understanding the regulatory frameworks of both countries, their enforcement mechanisms, and broader governance issues, the report seeks to debunk the reasons behind the different approaches undertaken by the DRC and Australia in addressing environmental sustainability in mineral resource extraction for the benefit of their people and the global supply chain.
Literature Review
Mining plays a vital role in the economic development of nations endowed with their respective mining resources. According to Hundy, mineral wealth contributes significantly to its gross domestic product (GDP) and supports various industries and value chains domestically and internationally (Ali, 2014). Thus, considering the DRC and Australia are renowned for their substantial mineral resources, their mining significantly influences domestic economies and the global value and supply chain associated with their respective minerals.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo stands out as one of the world’s most endowed mineral-rich nations, boasting an abundance of resources critical to modern industries, such as coltan, copper, and cobalt (Bakamana, 2021). According to a report by the Chambers Federation, the total value of untapped minerals and raw mineral deposits is an estimated $24 trillion, about the total value of the current United States of America (USA) economy. Subsequently, the DRC is the world’s largest producer of coltan. Currently, the country produces more than 70% of the world’s cobalt production and holds 60% of the planet’s coltan reserves (Perfect, 2017). The country is also a significant producer of the 3TG (tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold). These minerals are indispensable components of electronic devices and batteries, making the DRC a key player in the global technology production chain.
On the other hand, Australia is renowned for its vast mineral wealth, particularly in iron ore and coal, which have long become essential exports contributing to the nation’s economic prosperity. Like the DRC, Australia is also a significant producer of minerals that power green energy and modern ICT devices, such as cobalt, lithium, and rare earth minerals. The country is the world’s third largest cobalt producer, a major lithium producer, and produces rare earth elements used in various high-tech and industrial applications domestically and globally (Flexer et al., 2018).
Despite both countries gaining economic benefits from their mining activities, the extraction and processing of minerals often have been implemented differently, thus leading to severe impacts on the environment. In the DRC, the mining industry has been linked with deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution, and habitat destruction, thus leading to ecological imbalances that threaten its enormous biodiversity (Dobele et al., 2014). Similarly, Australia faces environmental challenges, including land disturbance, water contamination, and greenhouse gas emissions from coal mining activities.
Mineral resources are fundamental drivers of economic growth in the DRC and Australia. According to the World Bank, the mining sector contributes 30% of DRC’s GDP and has accounted for 90% of its exports for the past five years (World Bank, 2022.). Similarly, Australia’s mining sector significantly contributes to its export earnings, job creation, and overall economic stability by contributing to about 15% of its GDP.
The DRC’s regulatory framework for environmental protection in the mining sector has been described as fragmented and needs robust enforcement mechanisms. While several policies and laws are in place, their practical implementation could be improved by capacity, corruption, and political instability challenges (Kossoff et al., 2014). In contrast, Australia has developed a comprehensive suite of environmental regulations to mitigate the impacts of mining activities. These regulations encompass stringent environmental impact assessments, mine closure planning, and land rehabilitation requirements aimed at safeguarding ecosystems and minimizing environmental harm (Dobele et al., 2014).
Methodology
The research applied a methodical approach by conducting a thorough literature review to gather information from various sources, including Academic databases such as JSTOR, Research Gate, and Google Scholar. Each database was extensively utilized to access peer-reviewed articles that relate to environmental conditions and policies in mining both in Australia and the DRC. The literature provided deep insights into the environmental impacts of mining and the impact of associated policies in both the DRC and Australia.
Subsequently, Official government reports with mining data on both countries, including environmental impact assessments and mining regulations, were evaluated during the data collection. The insights gained from these sources provided the research with an authoritative perspective on the existing environmental policies and regulations governing the mining industry in each country. Finally, the research included reports and publications from international organizations such as the World Bank to pursue a broader global perspective on sustainable mining practices and environmental policies. All the data used in the research was then checked for accuracy before being presented in the research paper.
Environmental Conditions and Challenges
Mining activities exert significant pressure on the environment within Australia and the DRC. Thus, understanding both countries’ environmental conditions and challenges is vital for them to make effective policies and establish sustainable resource management practices. Mining in the DRC has resulted in widespread deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat destruction, contamination of surrounding water bodies. The artisanal mining sector forms a significant part of the mining sector in the country (Bakamana, 2021). However, the sector is highly unregulated and has been linked to significant land degradation, chemical pollution, and major environmental population activities that affect the health activities of the surrounding activities (Ali, 2014).
According to the Global Forest Watch and the World Resources Institute, the DRC has lost about 8.6% of its tree cover since 2000, with mining activities significantly contributing to deforestation (Global et al., 2023). Artisanal miners rarely apply any health and safety measures, nor do they possess knowledge of safe mining activities when working in different artisanal mines, thus putting their lives and the surrounding environment in danger, such as landslides (Kossoff et al., 2014).
Despite Australia’s stringent environmental regulations and well-controlled mining activities, the country faces various environmental issues surrounding its mining activities. Such issues include land disturbance, water pollution, uncontrolled runoff, and tailings, disruption of natural habitat, and emission of greenhouse gases from activities associated with coal mining (Dobele et al., 2014). Significant Efforts have been made to mitigate such issues but are limited by the issue of balancing economic interests with environmental preservation.
Several distinctions become evident when comparing the environmental challenges posed by mining in the DRC and Australia. The DRC faces immediate and severe challenges, primarily due to the prevalence of artisanal mining, which operates with limited oversight and often lacks environmental safeguards (Perfect, 2017). This has led to extensive land degradation, deforestation, and contamination of water sources. Moreover, the DRC’s environmental management capacity faces significant constraints due to political instability and governance issues, exacerbating the environmental impact of mining activities.
In contrast, while significant, Australia’s environmental challenges are mitigated to some extent by stringent regulations and established environmental management practices. The nation has implemented measures to minimize water pollution, monitor air quality, and require land rehabilitation for mining operations (Zhang & Moffat, 2015). Nevertheless, challenges remain, particularly in regions with prominent coal mining and related activities.
Environmental Policies and Regulations
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has established mining regulations and environmental laws to govern mining activities and protect the environment. The Mining Code serves as the fundamental legal framework, outlining procedures for obtaining mining permits, conducting environmental impact assessments (EIAs), and involving community consultations before initiating mining operations (Makabu, 2018). However, enforcement of these environmental safeguards faces challenges due to limited resources, weak governance, and corruption within regulatory bodies. Despite introducing the Environmental Code in 2011, which mandates environmental management plans and specific standards, effectiveness has yet to be improved due to insufficient enforcement and monitoring mechanisms (Imasiku & Thomas, 2020).
Australia has a comprehensive regulatory framework governing mining activity, prioritizing environmental protection and sustainability. The Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC Act) is a crucial federal legislation requiring rigorous assessments and approvals for mining projects impacting the environment (Imasiku & Thomas, 2020). Complementing federal laws, individual states and territories have their own tailored mining regulations. Notably, Australia emphasizes mine closure and rehabilitation planning, mandating detailed plans before mining begins to restore sites for alternative land uses (Dobele et al., 2014). Robust monitoring, reporting mechanisms, and penalties for non-compliance contribute to the effective enforcement of environmental standards.
In the DRC, enforcement of regulations encounters challenges due to institutional weaknesses, limited resources, governance issues, and corruption. This results in difficulties upholding mining and environmental regulations, enabling non-compliant practices to persist (Pourret et al., 2016). In contrast, Australia maintains robust enforcement and compliance mechanisms. Regulatory agencies have clear roles, ensuring companies adhere to environmental regulations. Rigorous monitoring, inspections, and reporting requirements enable adequate oversight of mining operations (Zhang & Moffat, 2015). Non-compliance can lead to penalties, fostering a culture of adherence to environmental standards within the industry.
Governance and Corruption
Governance significantly shapes environmental policies, evident in its impact on decision-making and regulatory frameworks. In environmental mining-related policies, governance is crucial in setting the tone for regulations and enforcement (Aznar-Sánchez et al., 2018). In countries like Australia, where governance structures are stable, transparent, and democratic, environmental policies tend to be more robust. Governance influences the inclusivity of stakeholder engagement, the depth of scientific considerations, and the balance between economic development and environmental conservation within policy formulation (Makabu, 2018).
The mining sector in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) faces substantial challenges stemming from corruption. Corruption affects various levels of government and regulatory bodies, significantly impacting the effectiveness of environmental policies and regulations (Geenen & Hönke, 2014). Illicit practices, such as fraudulent permits, tax evasion, and illegal mining operations, persist due to corruption within the sector. These corrupt practices result in substantial revenue loss for the state and exacerbate environmental degradation, as illegal mining often disregards environmental safeguards and regulations.
Australia’s mining industry operates within a stability, transparency, and accountability governance framework. The governance model promotes transparency through public consultation, transparent regulatory processes, and reporting requirements. Stakeholder engagement and the disclosure of environmental data are integral components of mining operations. Regulatory bodies maintain oversight, ensuring compliance with environmental regulations. This transparent governance approach fosters accountability within the industry, enabling scrutiny by civil society, academia, and environmental organizations, ultimately contributing to robust environmental policies and practices within Australia’s mining sector.
Resource Management and Sustainability
Australia showcases commendable strides in implementing sustainable mining practices. Anchored by stringent regulations, the country emphasizes environmental stewardship and sustainability in its mining industry. Australia strongly emphasizes mine rehabilitation and closure planning, ensuring restoration post-mining for alternative land uses. Robust monitoring, reporting mechanisms, and penalties for non-compliance contribute to the effective enforcement of environmental standards. Technological innovation and community engagement further augment Australia’s commitment to sustainable mining practices, positioning it as a global exemplar in responsible resource extraction (Zhang & Moffat, 2015).
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) faces multifaceted resource management challenges, significantly impacting its mining sector’s sustainability. Governance issues, limited infrastructure, and the prevalence of artisanal mining practices pose significant hurdles. The lack of capacity and enforcement mechanisms contributes to challenges regulating mining activities, leading to environmental degradation and resource depletion (Pourret et al., 2016). Artisanal mining, often informal and operating without adherence to environmental standards, exacerbates these challenges, hindering sustainable resource management in the DRC.
Internationally, responsible sourcing of minerals from regions like the DRC garners increased attention. Initiatives such as the Kimberly Process Certification Scheme and the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains aim to ensure ethical mineral sourcing (Flexer et al., 2018). These initiatives emphasize transparency, traceability, and accountability in the mineral supply chain. The focus is on preventing conflict-driven or environmentally detrimental mineral extraction by encouraging due diligence processes among companies sourcing minerals from regions facing sustainability and governance challenges (Butsic et al., 2015). These international efforts underscore the global significance of responsible mineral sourcing and sustainable resource management in regions with complex socio-political environments like the DRC.
Implications and Recommendations
Implications.
Environmental conditions within mining sectors often reflect a complex interplay of policies, governance, and enforcement. The comparative analysis between the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Australia unveils significant implications concerning the environmental impact, governance influence, and imperatives for sustainable mining practices. The research underscores a substantial divergence in the environmental impact of mining activities between the DRC and Australia. While both nations encounter environmental challenges, the DRC faces acute issues like land degradation, deforestation, and water contamination due to limited enforcement and governance challenges. In contrast, Australia showcases more robust environmental management owing to stringent regulations and governance frameworks.
Governance plays a pivotal role in shaping environmental policies and enforcement mechanisms. The stark contrast in governance structures between the two countries directly correlates with the effectiveness of their environmental policies. Weak governance, corruption, and institutional limitations significantly hinder the DRC’s ability to enforce regulations and mitigate environmental impact (Geenen & Hönke, 2014).
Sustainable mining practices are paramount for environmental preservation. Australia’s emphasis on rehabilitation, robust monitoring, and innovation offers a model for balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability. However, the challenges in the DRC underscore the urgent need for enhanced governance and capacity-building to ensure responsible resource management.
Recommendations.
Even though there are disparities in environmental impact and governance structures within the mining sectors of the DRC and Australia, several recommendations are essential for fostering environmental sustainability and responsible resource management.
- Enhanced Governance and Capacity Building: The DRC must prioritize strengthening governance structures, enhancing transparency, and building institutional capacity. This involves combating corruption, reinforcing regulatory bodies, and effectively investing resources to enforce environmental regulations.
- Adoption of Best Practices: Drawing from Australia’s successful practices, the DRC should consider implementing stringent environmental regulations, emphasizing mine rehabilitation, and fostering technological innovation in mining operations.
- International Collaboration: International bodies and stakeholders should engage in supporting responsible mineral sourcing, providing technical assistance, and fostering partnerships to bolster sustainable mining practices in regions facing governance and environmental challenges, such as the DRC.
- Community Engagement: Both nations can benefit from enhancing community engagement strategies. Involving local communities in decision-making processes and ensuring equitable distribution of benefits from mining activities can promote social acceptance and sustainable development (Imasiku & Thomas, 2020).
Conclusion
The comparative analysis between the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Australia’s mining sectors illuminates significant disparities in environmental impact, governance structures, and sustainable practices. These findings underscore the pivotal role of governance in shaping environmental policies and enforcement mechanisms. Weak governance and limited enforcement capacity in the DRC starkly contrast Australia’s robust governance frameworks, leading to substantial differences in environmental outcomes. The imperative for sustainable mining practices emerges as a critical consideration for fostering environmental preservation while balancing economic growth.
Addressing governance challenges, adopting best practices, and fostering international collaboration is imperative to achieving environmentally responsible mining operations worldwide. The study emphasizes the urgency of enhancing governance, embracing sustainable practices, and fostering global cooperation to ensure responsible resource management in mining industries, ultimately safeguarding the environment for future generations.
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