The latter part of the 19th century to the early 20th century represented a profound transformation in the foreign policies of the United States, primarily associated with the adoption of the imperialistic expansion policy. A complex fusion of economic, strategic, and ideological factors influenced American policy towards Cuba, the Philippines, Hawaii, and China between 1877 and 1921. That was when the U.S. turned from a regional power into a global influence to expand territorially, dominate economically, and shape geopolitics (Moore, 2017). The annexation of Hawaii, the Spanish-American War, the purchase of the Philippines, and the support of the Open-Door Policy in China are good examples of the diversity of that era’s American imperialism. Ultimately, the U.S.’s implementation of military interventions, diplomatic maneuvers, and economic penetration signaled its supremacy in the Western Hemisphere and beyond. This paper aims to explain the concept of American imperialism, which is the process of expansion into respective territories, and to outline the reasons, strategies, and consequences of U.S. expansionism at this point.
Imperialistic Expansion in Cuba
The imperialistic expansion of Cuba in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries was in response to economic, strategic, and political motives. Among its significant interests in Cuba, the United States regarded it as a critical area for economic growth, especially in the tobacco and sugar industries (Roman, 2023). Cuba’s fertile land and favorable weather conditions were very attractive to American business investors who sought to capitalize on the opportunities in agriculture.
Moreover, the Spanish-American War of 1898 was a turning point in the foreign policy of the U.S., which was the beginning of its interference in Cuba’s struggle for independence from the Spanish colonizers. On one side of the front, the U.S. was purporting to help Cuba break out of enslavement, but in reality, they were only trying to extend their influence over the country when the conflict was at its apex. Eventually, Spain was defeated, and instead of Spain, America gained control over the Western Hemisphere.
The U.S. boosted its connection with Cuba by ratifying the Platt Amendment in 1901, which reinforced its virtual pre-imperialist position. This amendment gave the U.S. considerable control over Cuban affairs, up to the point of instructing Cuba on its actions (Roman, 2023). Formalized as an instrument for preserving the status quo and securing American interests, the Platt Amendment was also a manifestation of the imperialist tendencies of the U.S. in the region and laid the foundation for U.S. hegemony over Cuba. Thus, the reasons for the United States’ involvement in Cuban events were economic exploitation, strategic gain, and political supremacy, which finally became a mutual imperialistic relationship.
Philippines: A Case of Colonial Conquest
From the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Philippines is the real and significant example of the United States’ possession and subjugation of a colony. The Spanish-American War of 1898 ended with the Treaty of Paris, which enabled the United States to possess the Philippines as one of its acquisitions from Spain (Lazo, 2022). U.S. colonialism in the alignment then began by acquiring this asset.
Nevertheless, the strictness of American rule came to a head, inciting the Filipinos to rise in arms, followed by a prolonged battle between the Americans and their compatriots. A series of fierce battles in which the Philippines fought the Americans for national independence from foreign oppression led to the war that followed the Philippine-American War [1899–1902] (Lazo, 2022). The war was writhing with tortures and killings that were inflicted on both sides.
Likewise, the resistance did not prevent American policy from adapting to colonial rule in the Philippines. The native people were ruled to carry out the policies of the Americans, which included the economic exploitation of their natural resources and the cultural assimilation of American values and institutions into them (Lazo, 2022). The colonial government was glad to be an exemplary American colony, although such a merit contradicted the Filipinos’ freedom and sovereignty. Therefore, the Philippine model of imperial subjugation embodies the type of resistance, repression, and imposition of the other authority.
Annexation of Hawaii: Economic Interests and Political Dominance
Hawaiian annexation in 1898 by the United States resulted from economic interests and political pressure. Besides, Hawaii’s greatest growth story in the sugar industry encouraged American companies to establish their businesses there. Hawaii had fertile land and a suitable climate for the production of sugar, which attracted prominent businessmen from the United States because there was a market for sugar in the U.S. Therefore, they wanted to make profits (Hearl, 2020).
Besides, American business played the leading role in the scheme to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893. U.S. military and diplomatic pressures followed. A small group of U.S. and European businessmen allied to the local Hawaiian elite, whom the United States backed, staged a coup and finally ended centuries of indigenous rule.
The annexation of Hawaii in 1898 allowed the U.S. to capture its economic interests in the Pacific region. Controlling the resources and the important strategic position of Hawaii in the Pacific, the American government, therefore, attempted to make their islands part of the territory of the United States (Hearl, 2020). Thus, the American expansion to Hawaii is considered imperialism, where the economy was the primary motive alongside political power.
U.S.-China Relations: Open Door Policy and Economic Penetration
The Open Door Policy and American companies’ fight for economic supremacy dominated relations between the U.S. and China at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. First, John Hay, the American Secretary of State, instituted the Open Door Policy in 1899 to guarantee that all foreign powers had equal access to Chinese markets (Britannica, 2023). By backing the policy, the United States aimed to deprive China of tight zones of influence and, at the same time, to protect its commercial interests in the region.
Second, American businesses sought the market expansion made possible by the Open Door Policy and grew to be market leaders in China. In the background of Chinese markets’ exploration of trade opportunities and resources, U.S. corporations were present with them in industries like banking, manufacturing, and transportation, where they felt the most (Britannica, 2023). Yet, this economic invasion allowed China to become a part of a global capitalist system, leading to transportation and industrial modernization.
Besides this, the United States, along with other foreign powers, declared a military attack to extinguish the anti-foreign and anti-Christian insurrection during the Boxer uprising of 1900. The American suppression of the Boxer rebellion was to safeguard its economic interests and the stability of its presence in China through imperialist economic maneuvering relations, which were immoral.
Conclusion
In summary, 1877–1921 was the time of the increase of American imperialism in its relations with Cuba, the Philippines, Hawaii, and China. Economic gains, strategic mastery, and the desire to rule the world were the key factors driving the U.S. into adopting many imperialistic practices, such as military interventions and economic exploitation. Such steps reshaped the geopolitical sphere and affected the cultures, economies, and societies of the regions they related. Notwithstanding the convoluted process of these encounters, they are, in fact, a part of U.S. history linked to imperialistic goals and consequences.
References
Britannica (2023, December 26). Open-door policy. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Open-Door-policy
Hearl, J. (2020). Racial politics and the U.S. Annexation of Hawaii.
Lazo, S. L. (2022). The Philippines: The Past Revisited by Renato Constantino.
Moore, C. D. (2017). American Imperialism and the State, 1893–1921. Cambridge University Press.
Roman, I. (2023). A timeline of US-Cuba relations. https://www.history.com/news/timeline-us-cuba-relations
write