The Burden of Influenza B

Introduction

The three types of influenza include types A and B are the most prevalent in people, and Influenza C, which is less frequent and causes a less severe illness. Hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase are surface proteins useful in categorizing influenza A. However, H1N1 and H3N2 are the most critical subtypes of influenza (A) (3). Although influenza B is not subtyped, two antigenically and genetically separate lineages, B/Victoria/2/87-like (also known as the Victoria lineage) and B/Yamagata/16/88-like (also known as the Yamagata lineage), have been circulating in different parts of the world since 1983. However, “calculations can be made for a given region or country to determine when given influenza virus strain predominates” (3). The current trivalent seasonal influenza vaccinations cover two Influenza A subtypes and the influenza B lineage. The first influenza virus, A (H1N1), was discovered in 1933; Francis first discovered influenza B in 1940. Early on, it was observed that influenza B epidemics happened every two to four years and were often well-defined and distinct; medically attended diseases, such as doctor visits and hospitalizations, were widespread across all age groups (3).

The introduction of shifting demography, the second lineage in 1983, involved quick mobility of human populations and led to the evolution of influenza B’s epidemiology. Since influenza B variations change less often than influenza A variants, adults who have previously been exposed to influenza B may occasionally experience less severe illness than similarly exposed children, who invariably experience more excellent attack rates. The severity depends on “the presence of underlying chronic conditions which increases the risk of influenza” (3). Influenza A has received greater attention than influenza B. Early studies that determined that influenza B had a lower illness burden than influenza A continue to impact current perceptions of influenza B (3). Influenza A may result in catastrophic pandemics since it receives more journalistic attention than influenza B, which contributes to the misconception that it does not seriously endanger public health. There are signs that influenza B will have a significant impact, in contrast to the widespread belief that it will not. Thus, this paper will review the literature on influenza B and the progress made to combat it.

Literature Review

The respiratory system usually has problems due to influenza infection (3). As a result of the respiratory tract being inflamed, the ciliated cells become depleted, resulting in a significant volume of blood entering the hyaline membrane and foreign materials from neutrophils and mononuclear cells. Most influenza patients’ leading cause of mortality is viral pneumonia, which frequently follows an influenza infection. The columnar epithelial cells suffer harm by lowering the hosts’ response to protein synthesis and apoptosis. Besides, influenza viruses are becoming a significant epidemic cause of severe respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality (2). Cellular oxidative stress brought on by influenza can cause damage to the lungs’ tissues. Respiratory failure results in “acute lung injury associated with alveolar edema and excessive bleeding” (2). There is also usual incubation period for effect is two days. However, it can range from one to four days. The amount of a virus that is acquired, the method by which the virus enters the body, and the previously developed immunity can all affect how long it takes to appear symptoms.

Most of the symptoms must be present for the person to test and still optimistic about this virus. “Depending on the person, the virus’s symptoms might range from minor to severe. Flu symptoms frequently include sudden onset of fever, cough, body pains, weariness, congestion, and sore throat” (3). The wild virus’s antibiotic response is typically more widespread and durable than vaccine-induced antibodies. The antibody response can choose any of these proteins from the eight genomic regions in influenza, but not always in the same way. The response to the influenza virus is more complicated if the host has already been exposed to the viral strand by vaccination or spontaneous exposure (6). The antibody response targets all these proteins but not in the same manner because the reaction strongly depends on the target (5). Both spikes of the virus are visible on the surface of infected cells. The immune system reacts differently depending on how easily the B cell receptors may be accessible.

Bed rest and a lot of fluids are typically the first lines of defense since influenza is a virus. Complications are more frequent in severe infections, and antiviral medicine may be recommendable. Researchers are working on developing vaccines like Virus-Like Particles (VLPs) and Influenza RNA drugs which can reduce the high rates of influenza infections (4). Other crucial prescribed drugs could be Tamiflu, Relenza, Rapivab, or Xofluza. Antiviral drugs help cut the sickness’ duration by a day or two, which helps to avoid catastrophic problems. The adverse effects of medications used to treat influenza include nausea and vomiting. However, “microRNA vaccines have emerged as a new type of influenza vaccine associated with effective properties” (4). The use of meals while taking these drugs is highly advised. The influenza virus frequently causes dehydration as a secondary effect. Water, juice, and hot soups are just a few of the many fluids that should be ingestible. Additionally, over-the-counter painkillers like ibuprofen and Tylenol can ease the ache brought on by the flu. It is also important to limit activities since the immune system needs rest to battle this infection.

People with the flu should never take aspirin since it might result in Reye’s syndrome, a deadly illness. Keeping your distance from others is crucial until you’ve been fever-free for 24 hours. The new influenza vaccination will be accessible before flu season since influenza strains vary yearly. Such vaccination would be helpful since “seasonal influenza outbreaks results in adverse illness in numerous people which increases mortality rate” (1). It’s a fantastic idea to get the seasonal flu shot to help protect yourself against the illness. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the seasonal flu vaccination reduces the chance of contracting the disease (7). These factors influencing the recommended vaccination include age, risk, and allergies. The influenza vaccine takes about two weeks to produce the required antibodies to protect the individual against the virus, so it does not start working immediately. Some vaccines, like mRNA, begin replicating the target DNA, which occurs in a couple of weeks (1). New viruses are found every year, and the virus that is most frequently seen determines which vaccination will be developed for the next season. Various manufacturers produce vaccines that are easily accessible to people of all ages, starting at six months.

Numerous advances have been made in developing antiviral medications and antibodies to prevent and cure the flu. Organizations have been developing to provide early warning in the case of pandemic infections (8). An effort is necessary to ensure that those susceptible to flu and its complexities and those in contact with patients develop antibodies. APNs and other medical assistance professionals must inform their clients and companions about their vulnerability to the flu and the seriousness of illness that it may bring to improve immunization insurance (8). To reduce the suffering and death associated with flu, APNs must assess their clients’ beliefs, views, and understandings of the flu and immunization and devise interventions to make the antibody and vaccine delivery appealing. Receiving the vaccination serves as the first line of defense, giving people rapid protection that endures even after they wash their hands or are no longer in close contact with others (9). Those who contract the virus are prone to the numerous hazardous consequences of influenza because of its easy spread. Medical specialists advise getting a yearly influenza vaccine since the influenza virus is so elusive. These medical specialists require vaccination since “Healthcare personnel (HCP) influenza vaccination is the best intervention that reduces patients’ harm” (10). Children and adults 65 and older comprise most of the population known to receive immunization. Therefore, there is an exclusion of a significant portion of the population. Adults between 18 and 40 are less likely to obtain the immunization than other age groups. “Only 44% of persons over 18 have had such vaccination” (9). Adults have external effects such as social and contextual signals, prior experiences, and perceptions of efficacy, which can be determinable in obtaining vaccination.

Conclusion

This review is one of the first studies to thoroughly assess the burden of influenza B. The findings recommend that influenza B poses a significant commitment to the global population, despite the restrictions and discrepancies in reporting that make it difficult to compare studies. Still, there are severe gaps in our comprehension of the exact scope of this burden, and authored reports concerning outcomes, comorbidities, and costs are lacking in the peer-reviewed literature. Numerous producers of influenza vaccines have started investigations to promote the licensure of quadrivalent seasonal influenza vaccinations. Assessing the potential advantages of these vaccinations would benefit from more information on the incidence, clinical burden, and economic effects of influenza B.

References

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2. Domingo L & Rovira J. “Effects of air pollutants on the transmission and severity of respiratory viral infections.” Environmental Research187, (2020): 109650.

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