Introduction
It is a well-known truth that teenagers, in particular, are significantly more susceptible to health-related risk factors and inclined to participate in behaviors that might be hazardous to their health than grown up. Therefore, it is vital to consider the factors that could deter and encourage young youngsters to participate in health-harming activities. This research seeks to address three objectives: to examine social predictor variables of optimism; to identify a relationship between o various measures of psychosocial health and optimism; and, finally, to investigate its relationship to various health-related patterns, including both health-improving and health-compromising ones.
Multiple research studies on the relationship between health and optimism have subsequently been conducted. According to this empirical research, optimism is defined as the common expectation of favorable future developments. Beneficial thinking has a positive effect, which means optimism may have some power over maintaining and promoting health. Numerous studies have revealed a positive correlation between optimism and other factors connected to health; in general, optimism may enhance physical health. Loseby et al. (2022) found that optimism was linked to improved immune function and a shorter duration of illness in an HIV-positive group. Similar advantages were shown in cancer patients: optimistic patients had higher one-year survival rates than pessimists among head and neck cancer patients. Optimism may well have a stress-relieving impact on the immune system (for instance, by raising CD4+ T cell percentages and NK cells cell cytotoxic), albeit this is only true when stress is under control. Optimistic people usually carry on with challenging pressures in these situations, which might deplete their resources. As a result, employing optimistic techniques produces higher psychological harm than gain (expressed, for instance, in greater cortisol levels). Although the present study does not explicitly address immune system function, it is vital to discuss how optimism may affect physical health. Optimism may influence one’s physical health through at least two separate mechanisms. Emotion and conduct serve as the two mediators. These results highlight the need for more studies into how optimism affects behavior, especially health-related behavior.
According to studies, optimism and positive emotions are related. It has also been demonstrated that optimism was linked to a happier mood. For instance, Hashemi et al. (2019) found that optimistic law students experienced lower levels of stress and more excellent immunological reflexes (higher great numbers of effector cells and more effective NK cell cytotoxic) during testing time. According to Telef (2020) findings, pessimism, optimism, negative and positive moods, and psychological adjustment may be connected. Happiness and life satisfaction were positively connected with optimism, whereas depression and negative sad moods were adversely correlated with optimism. Even though it had been demonstrated that optimism was a predictor of both life satisfaction and sadness, it was believed that optimism and psychological changes were connected through mood. Telef (2020) found that optimism also had an inverse relationship with happiness and life satisfaction. Similar results were reached by Zou et al. (2018), who found a link between adolescent optimism and academic stress. Teenage pupils’ optimism has a depression-diffusing effect. Students who scored highly on optimism scales suffered less as daily challenges worsened.
The research establishes the foundation for positive psychological efforts to develop techniques that improve psychological health, health, and depression reduction by fostering positivity, gratitude, and optimism. Kjell and Diener (2021) described five optimism-building activities. For one exercise, the participants were asked to record three good things that happened daily, along with their reasons. Additionally, they had to select their five most important defining qualities and apply them over the following week in another work. The participants reported feeling cheerful and less depressed for six months following the activities. The second possible link between optimism and health outcomes is behavior, specifically coping mechanisms. According to the transaction model of coping, humans use two forms of cognitive appraisal when faced with a stressful situation. During the initial evaluation, we can establish whether a situation might endanger our credibility or goals. Therefore, the anxiety of the initial assessment might represent harm, danger, or difficulty. Secondary evaluation reveals our capacity to control this threat, difficulty, or harm and our prospective coping solutions.
According to Antoni et al. (2022), utilizing particular coping methods and having more optimism may enhance psychological development and health. For instance, a more favorable immune response was linked to more optimism, increased engagement in seeking out social networks, positive reinterpretation coping, and less use of detachment from challenges in breast cancer patients. Men and women with HIV who had lost loved ones to AIDS reported using active coping strategies to feel optimistic. In males who underwent coronary artery bypass surgery, optimism was negatively correlated with rejection and positively correlated with a variety of problem-focused coping techniques and a speedier recovery and return to normal activities. Kjell and Diener (2021) also demonstrated that Task-oriented coping was utilized more frequently while dealing with a chronic disease, helping to maintain positive attitudes and expectations of successful outcomes (type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis). These positive attitudes ultimately improved overall psychological health by using more task-focused and less emotion-focused coping mechanisms.
Antoni et al. (2022) concluded that their research findings were surprising. Since optimism consists of positive expectations for a situation, it is significantly more likely to motivate to overcome challenges, accomplish goals, and produce active (and occasionally emotion-focused) coping mechanisms than avoidance coping mechanisms. Although aggressive and problem-focused coping strategies have frequently been thought of as adaptive reactions, they may become maladaptive in unforeseen situations. In some circumstances, emotion-focused approaches may be more adaptive.
Along with coping mechanisms, healthy lifestyle choices can also moderate the beneficial benefits of optimism on health. However, it is essential to highlight that there have been a few research studies thus far. Often, healthy habits may be seen as unique forms of adaptive copings, such as sports or drug abuse. Zou et al. (2018) argue that optimism is more likely to be favorably related to wellness actions, which may preserve and sustain overall health stability, and negatively connected with health-related risk factors, which imperil and impair health well-being. According to Kjell and Diener (2021) study of senior men, being more optimistic was associated with increased physical exercise and activity, a healthier diet (including vegetables, fruits, and grains), and non-smoking (but excessive alcohol consumption as a course)
In light of these findings, further study is required to determine how optimism affects health outcomes. To comprehend optimism’s social context, we examined a set of traits from two critical socialization contexts—home and school. Some of them, including parental social support or even the family’s SES, may be factors in optimism. Second, we proposed that optimism could positively correlate with beneficial improvements (such as life satisfaction and self-perceived well-being). Negative psychological changes, such as depression as a sign, however, may correlate adversely. Last but not least, we proposed that optimism may be positively connected with health-promoting behaviors (a balanced diet and regular exercise) and negatively correlated with outcomes that increase the likelihood of developing health problems.
Methods
Participants and the procedure
800 high school students (between the ages of 15 and 22) from f4 high schools in California were the subjects of the data collection. A list of all California high schools was used to choose the four schools, and a representative of all the high school classes was used to select the classes. The sampled pupils’ average age was 16 years old (Mean = 16.1 years; S.D. = 1.4 years), and 44% were female.
The return rate for the 1000 questionnaires was 900, or 15% of the high school student body. The response rate for our total sample count was close to 90%. The remaining students were likely absentees or kids whose parents objected to their participation in the study. Parents were made aware of the study and allowed to give their consent prior to the data collection period. The administration followed a well-established procedure. Experienced graduates distributed the forms to the students at each session, and they completed them in class after briefly defining the study’s objectives and delivering all crucial directions. It was made clear that the material was being gathered exclusively for research reasons, and there was no necessity for student participation only if he or she felt to be involved and parents approved the decision.
Measures
To measure dispositional optimism, we employed Life Orientation, the best deposition tool described by Antoni et al. (2022). The LOT contrasts standardized expectations for favorable and unfavorable outcomes and consists of eight questions (plus four filler items that were not examined as scale components). Following each statement, a question asking students to assess their degree of agreement was asked. One represented extreme agreement, and five represented strong disagreement on a five-point answer scale. The trustworthiness of this scale is indicated by its 0.70 Cornbrash’s alpha.
Researchers quantified self-perceived well-being as a worldwide health indicator by evaluating participants and how they compared to their peers in terms of health (Cal et al., 2022). The findings are as follows: Two for poor, three for average, four for good, and five for excellent. Smoking and drinking were assessed as potential health risks by asking respondents if they had smoked or used alcohol in the preceding three months. The term “heavy drinking” was used to describe the consumption of more than five gallons of alcohol. Response options for smoking varied from 2 to 7, with two representing lower and seven high smoking levels. Heavy drinking was graded on a scale of 2 to 7, with 2 representing none and seven representing more than multiple times. Exercise and dietary control were rated as health-improving behaviors.
Diet management was evaluated by asking participants how hard they had tried to maintain a healthy diet during the preceding months. Answer choices ranged from never (2) to always (6). The following question was asked regarding physical activity: “How frequently did you exercise for at least a half-hour outside of school during the past three months?” The answer courses are never (1), once or twice (2), more than twice a month (3), once or twice every week (4), and three or even more times per week (5). For this outcome, Logistic regression analysis was demonstrated using dichotomized variables.
Pessimism symptoms were assessed using a reduced version of the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI), a self-rating scale of depression symptoms for teenagers developed from the Beck Depression Inventory for adults (Uchida et al., 2018). Each question’s original and shortened versions evaluated just one symptom, such as depression, and were scored from 0 to 1. The short CDI showed reliability with a 0.75 Cronbach’s alpha based on the provided information. We weighted the shortened CDI by a factor of 3.4 (number of original CDI items 24/lowered version components 8 = 3.4) to compare this data to other datasets from California, Europe, and Asia. As a result, the sample’s standard deviation and average score were eight (S.D. = 8.0). Life satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Each of the five questions on the assessment asked students to score their agreement, with answers ranging from 1 for disagree to 7 for agree. The range of the outcome studies was 6-36, and they were reliable, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.8.
The Kjell & Diener (2021) Measures of Perceived Social Support were used to assess parents’ social help. Higher scores showed more contentment with the perceived support for each of the six items for each sub-dimension. Student cooperation with each of the criteria was used to gauge satisfaction. The following categories formed the basis for responses: 5 is highly similar to my experience, four is similar, five is slightly similar, and two is not similar. The final scales of perceived social support were classified from 7 to 24 and were dependable, with father support having a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.9 and 0.88, respectively.
Analysis
Using SPSS, the calculations were carried out at a maximum significance level of.05. The investigation begins with a descriptive statistical examination of the characteristics and variables in this sample of young people from California. Regression analysis was used to investigate the social environment of optimism, using several models (blocks of variables) to assess their relative importance. The bivariate associations between optimism and other variables were discovered using two distinct types of analysis. First, a connection between parameters related to happiness and optimism, such as life satisfaction and depression, was calculated. Following that, odds ratios (ORs) were created using logistic regression analysis to see how optimism affects teenage physical well-being and psychological health regarding behaviors, self-perception, and other variables.
Results
Descriptive Analysis
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for the sampled California students’ socioeconomic, parental, and school-related factors. Apprenticeship was recognized as the most prevalent sort of schooling by the majority of parents. Most students (64%) reported having middle class, 2.4 percent reported being lower class, and only 1.8% claimed to be higher (elite). Chatting about personal concerns with relatives was more prevalent (15.4% of pupils reported doing so all the time) than talking with instructors (just 2.1%). The majority of them (65.4%) were satisfied with their education.
Table 2 displays a statistical summary analysis for the sample on the health behavior variables. In the survey, 38.7% represented the current student smokers, 68.4% attempted drinking at least once in the previous three months, 65.1% participated in regular exercise (at least each week), 78.1% tried diet management (most or all of the time), and 67.9% assessed their health as excellent or exceptional.
Table 3 displays Statistical data for academic accomplishment, social support, and overall well-being. Mothers received more social support from students (Mean = 19.83) than dads (Mean = 16.67). CDI values were somewhat low, whereas life satisfaction and optimism levels were relatively high.
The influences of optimism on every health and well-being measure are shown in Table 4 as projected by Odds Ratios (OR). Only smoking was a non-significant dependent variable when it came to health behaviors; optimism predicted heavy drinking (OR = 0.96, p .05), physical activity (OR = 1.05, p .01), and diet management (1.02, p .001). Optimism played a significant role in the prediction of sadness (OR = 0.9, p .001), life satisfaction (OR = 1.4, p .001), and self-perceived health (OR = 1.2, p .001).
Discussion
A positive psychological state unambiguously identifies optimism as a constructive human ability (Kjell & Diener, 2021). Nonetheless, little evidence is accessible on the variables that may keep 15 optimistic. As a result, in this research, we first looked at parenting and education-related characteristics that may predict this construct’s basis. Talking about difficulties with parents, social support from the father, social support from the mother, and father schooling was substantially connected to optimism. Previous research has shown a significant association between the first three factors and optimism. As stated in the introduction, the parent-child connection predicts the amount of optimism in the kid.
Moreover, several other studies have discovered that, while social networks alter throughout teenagers due to the increasing relevance of peer interactions, the parent- relationship still influences the psychological health of teenagers. This corresponds to our current data. The father is usually the primary breadwinner in the household. Financial well-being and presence may also predict optimism, which is why paternal education was shown to be highly connected to optimism.
Only be satisfied with the school was a significant predictor of optimism among school-related characteristics. Aside from family and friends, school is an essential socializing sphere for teenagers. Previous research has revealed that school satisfaction and academic accomplishment influence adolescent well-being and psychosocial adaptations (Telef, 2020). However, unlike earlier research, social support from teachers did not predict optimism in our group. Another purpose of this study was to give further data on the association between optimism and several markers of psychological adjustment. Previous research has demonstrated a favorable association between optimism and health. Our findings confirmed their findings: optimism was a strong predictor of physical activity, diet management, and decreased binge drinking, but not of smoking. Depression was found to be a protective factor against depression; it strongly predicted life satisfaction, and optimists rated their own health higher.
In summary, our survey supported the following claims: 1) some social factors (father schooling, parental social support, and discussing problems with parents) predicted significantly (though to a lesser extent) levels of optimism; 2) optimism was associated with beneficial health behaviors, and 3) optimists had better psychological adjustments (they were less likely to report depression, evaluated better their health, satisfied more with their life) (Telef, 2020). Longitudinal studies are required to demonstrate the cause-and-effect linkages between optimism, social factors, and other health indices. However, optimism is a significant protective factor for teenagers’ health-related behaviors and psychological well-being.
Reference
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