Introduction
Galen’s impact on the medieval medical community rests on their disagreement in opinions on causes of disease, treatment of disease, and restoration of health. Galen is considered one of the most influential physicians during the Roman period. He was a Greek physician famous for his theories on anatomy and physiology. Many doctors across Europe studied his teachings until after the Renaissance when he was primarily replaced by advancements in science and medicine while retaining some fame. One reason Galen had such an effect on medieval physicians is their agreement about what diseases were caused by and how they were treated. The various views on these topics are because of the differences in their medical knowledge.
Scholars described and discussed Galen’s methods and experiments in the Middle Ages as they saw fit. However, it was in the Renaissance period that the medical community finally began to abandon Galen’s views and begin to research new theories. Though medieval doctors were aware of errors in Galen’s studies, such as his failure to consider organ homogeneity, they still concluded his works. The doctors of this time accepted Galenic theory because they had no other frame of reference-their only sources were texts that identified it as doctrine (Caballero, 2019). The Renaissance marked the beginning of scientific investigation in the field of medicine. Although it was not a very progressive period in the history of medicine, there were some significant developments in anatomy and physiology. The Middle Ages benefited greatly from Galen’s work. His research served as the model for medieval medical practice. However, discoveries began to surface in the Renaissance, and doctors eventually abandoned Galen’s theories about organ homogeneity and other subjects.
Body
Galen’s teachings were based on assumptions rather than scientific reasoning, which was not the case with medieval medicine. Galen focused on anatomy and physiology while disregarding other topics, such as embryology and genetics, which were important in medieval medicine. Medieval physicians placed more importance on embryology and genetics when determining causes of diseases due to their study of human embryos in utero, birth deformities, and twins. The medieval doctors’ differing opinions are due to their differing medical education and experience. Medieval doctors had more experience treating diseases and restoring health as they often performed autopsies on human bodies. At the same time, they were still alive to better understand the causes of disease and restore health. Galen said: “The body is composed of four elements – earth, air, fire, and water.” Medieval doctors accepted his teachings and maintained the same four elements to be present in the body with slight modifications. The medieval doctors also believed that the body was divided into three parts: the head, neck, chest, and abdomen. They also accepted Galen’s teaching about blood, and he stated that blood comes from the heart as opposed to the circulatory system, as later-day doctors held.
Additionally, Galen stated that disease originates from emotional or internal causes and not from external causes. Galen’s medieval followers did not accept this. For example, Theophilus the Confessor made a list of diseases originating from external causes, such as “sores on the nose or other parts of the body,” “a yellowish (yellow) discharge,” “fever,” etc. Galen also said that specific organs could be affected by one another’s condition (e.g., when a body is afflicted with fever, some of its internal organs are affected), which was deemed erroneous by medieval physicians’ beliefs. Medieval doctors had more experience treating diseases and restoring health as they often performed autopsies on human bodies. At the same time, they were still alive to better understand the causes of disease and restore health. This contrasts Galen, who rarely performed dissections on live bodies, unlike his medieval followers. Additionally, medieval physicians did not accept Galen’s belief that specific organs affected each other’s condition. They believed that an organ could be affected by the actions of another organ but not directly affect it in a cause-and-effect manner.
Galen stated that specific organs could be affected by one another’s condition (e.g., when a body is afflicted with fever, some of its internal organs are affected), which was deemed erroneous by medieval physicians’ beliefs. Medieval doctors believed that all diseases originate from emotional or internal causes and not from external causes. They believed that bacteria and viruses could cause disease, but they could only weaken the immune system (not cause disease). They believed that the skin, nerves, and muscles were the body’s barriers, and they dissected bodies to examine them to learn their functions and how diseases affected them. Galen also said that specific organs could be affected by one another’s condition (e.g., when a body is afflicted with fever, some of its internal organs are affected), which was deemed erroneous by medieval physicians’ beliefs. Galen said that his beliefs about the blood circulation in the body are still accepted today. However, later-day doctors did not accept his belief that blood came from the heart, not from the circulatory system.
Galen’s work on the humoral system has been shown by many to be inaccurate and unscientific. However, it was the model for medicine during his time (including Aristotle, who developed it) and was a valuable concept to doctors in Medieval times. Galen was partially wrong about organ homogeneity; however, he believed it must be uniform throughout its entire length. This is incorrect, as only fat is required to make up a smooth membrane (Bateson, 1968). In addition, blood cells are also present in the walls of organs and non-fatty tissues that support smooth membranes (e.g., muscle tissue). There Galen’s research has many other inaccuracies researchers from the Renaissance began to recognize this and abandon his theories. Galen’s work is more valuable to doctors in his time than it is for those in the Middle Ages because he was the first doctor to experiment with healing and understand how the human body works. Galen’s animal experiments yielded information that is unlikely to be found elsewhere, as there was no modern scientific method at the time. The doctors of the Middle Ages would not have been able to gain such accurate information about the human disease without his work.
Medieval doctors accepted him because they agreed with his beliefs about disease causes, how they were treated, and how they were restored to health. The first evidence for this claim is that there were various theoretical differences between medieval medical theories and Galen’s. For example, Theophilus the Confessor stated that any illness either comes from external causes or an imbalance of four body senses of humor – blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. This differs from Galen, who stated that disease originates from emotional or internal causes, not from external ones, as we previously discussed. Furthermore, Theophilus the Confessor also states that disease can be cured by “pleasurable foods and drinks,” which Galen disagrees with, who states that food’s primary purpose is to restore lost bodily fluids. Also, Theophilus states that all disease is of a “harsh or gentle” character; Galen did not make such a statement about diseases.
Another way in which medieval doctors differed from Galen was their views on anatomy. Medieval doctors believed that the body was divided into three parts: the head, neck, and chest, while Galen believed in four. Also, Theophilus stated that specific internal organs were affected by one another’s condition (e.g., when a body is afflicted with fever, some of its internal organs are affected), which was deemed erroneous by Galen’s beliefs. There were several differences between the practice of Galen and that of his medieval followers. This is based on Theophilus’s choices regarding treating disease with treatment methods provided by Galen. Theophilus believed in using treatments based on Galenic theory while disregarding other treatments. For example, he did not administer bloodletting, which he believed was contrary to nature and therefore had no effect (if any). Also, he did not know about the importance of symptomatic treatment and was unfamiliar with hydrotherapy, which most physicians widely used at the time.
Furthermore, Theophilus believed that Galen’s teachings about blood were incorrect in that he stated that blood comes from the heart instead of the circulatory system. Other differences between Galen and his followers include their opinions on using reconstructive surgery to restore physical health. Theophilus believed that physicians should reconstruct what they could after suffering a disease or injury, while Galen did not believe this was possible. Doctors throughout the Middle Ages used Galen’s work regarding organ homogeneity and helped them fully understand how diseases are passed from one individual to another. Although Galen was not entirely correct about organ homogeneity, his theories helped to provide insight into the workings of the human body. They served as an accurate means of understanding disease. His theory was far superior to any other ideas used by doctors at the time. Though medieval doctors were aware of Galen’s shortcomings in his research, they still drew their conclusions from his work. The Middle Ages benefited greatly from Galen’s work; however, discoveries began to surface in the Renaissance period, leading to reevaluating his theories.
The Middle Ages benefited greatly from Galen’s work because it created a framework for medical practitioners to use during their practices. As a result, they could make accurate diagnoses based on proper testing and observation. Galen’s discoveries allowed doctors of the Middle Ages to understand better how illnesses would spread from one person to another. Doctors also had a better method of treating patients with similar symptoms. Galen’s work providing a framework for medical practices was less valuable to doctors in the Middle Ages because of his animal experimentation done to study humans. Through his animal experiments, Galen could compile unique research for the period. His work provided new information about human anatomy and physiology that is unlikely to be found elsewhere.
Conclusion
Galen’s impact on the medieval medical community was immense. His work provided a framework for medical practitioners to use during their practices. His discoveries allowed doctors of the Middle Ages to understand better how illnesses would spread from one person to another and provided doctors with accurate information that is unlikely to be found elsewhere. His theory was far superior to any other ideas used by doctors at the time. However, new discoveries began to surface in the Renaissance period, leading to reevaluating his theories. Galen’s animal experiments allowed him to compile much valuable research that was unique for his period. He used animal experimentation to test new theories and determine whether they would be accurate for humans. His discoveries allowed doctors of the Middle Ages to understand better how illnesses would spread from one person to another and provided new information about human anatomy and physiology.
The Middle Ages benefited considerably. However, discoveries began to surface that made people question the accuracy of his work. Galen’s work was beneficial, but it had limitations that ultimately led people to believe his theories were inaccurate. Galen’s medieval followers could not have benefited so greatly from his work if it were not for his animal experimentation done to study humans. Through his animal experiments, Galen could compile research that was unique for the period and provided new information about human anatomy and physiology. Though some of Galen’s theories were incorrect, he was far superior to any other ideas used by doctors at the time because he used scientific methods to test and prove his experiments.
References
A; P. (n.d.). Galen, father of systematic medicine. An essay on the evolution of Modern Medicine and Cardiology. International journal of cardiology. Retrieved December 13, 2022, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24461486/
Caballero-Navas, C. (2019). The Reception of Galen in Hebrew Medieval Scientific Writings. In Brill’s Companion to the Reception of Galen (pp. 537-558). Brill.
Mattern, S. (2011, August 6). Galen and his patients. The Lancet. Retrieved December 13, 2022, from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)61240-3/fulltext
McVaugh, M. (2019). Galen in the Medieval Universities, 1200–1400. In Brill’s Companion to the Reception of Galen (pp. 381–392). Brill.
Medicine in medieval England, – Ark Evelyn Grace Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2022, from https://evelyngraceacademy.org/sites/default/files/1%20-%20Medicine%20in%20Medieval%20England.pdf
write