Introduction
The theme of resistance to control and domination is a recurring issue in American literature, serving as a prism through which to explore the battles of many communities against foreign forces aiming to impose power. This subject takes the front stage in literary works that illustrate the Native American experience against the backdrop of American colonization. An essential treatise from the Powhatan Confederacy, “Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War,” serves as a historical forerunner, laying bare the intricacies of Native American-European interactions. In addition, William Apess’s “King Phillip’s Speech” gives a heartbreaking voice from the nineteenth century, describing opposition to colonization through the prism of a Native American author. Furthermore, the incorporation of Native American oral literature, exemplified by the haunting “Cherokee War Song” and “Lenape War Song,” provides an oral tradition viewpoint on the everlasting spirit of defiance. This paper argues that ‘Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War,’ ‘King Phillip’s Speech,’ and Native American oral literature, specifically ‘Cherokee War Song’ and ‘Lenape War Song,’ exemplify the enduring theme of resistance to control and domination in the Native American experience. Through a comparative analysis of these works, we aim to unravel the nuanced strategies employed by Native Americans to defy external forces, preserving their ancestral lands and cultural identity in the face of European colonization.”
“Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War”
Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War unfolds as a profound dialogue between Native American wisdom and the impending challenges of European colonization. As Powhatan, the revered leader of the Powhatan Confederacy contemplates the inevitability of his passing, his words carry a weighty significance against the backdrop of early 17th-century America. The English settlers, driven by expansionist ambitions, were encroaching upon Tsenacommacah, the Native American territory led by Powhatan. Powhatan’s discourse becomes a crucial historical artifact, capturing the essence of Native American resistance in the face of cultural and territorial encroachment.
Powhatan questions the English motivations, asking, “Why should you take by force that from us which you can have by love?” This rhetorical query not only highlights the inherent contradiction in the English approach but also underscores the Native American emphasis on cooperation and diplomacy. Another poignant quote, “I am not so simple, as not to know it is better to eat good meat, lie well, and sleep quietly with my women and children,” reveals Powhatan’s desire for a harmonious existence, emphasizing the practical advantages of collaboration over conflict.
Rice’s work provides vital insights into the geopolitical dynamics of the period for a more nuanced perspective. Rice’s thesis situates Powhatan’s leadership within the framework of broader Native American policies, highlighting the complex link between territorial expansion and resistance to approaching European powers. We recognise that Powhatan’s discourse was not simply a sincere plea but also a calculated reaction within a complicated web of political and cultural factors by embracing Rice’s viewpoint.
Powhatan’s desire for peaceful cohabitation is further emphasised in his discourse, where he pushes for the eradication of war equipment, declaring, “I insist that the guns and swords, the cause of all our jealousy and uneasiness, be removed and sent away.” This demand indicates not just a desire for disarmament, but also a symbolic move aimed at building trust between Native Americans and English. Powhatan’s emphasis on peaceful councils emphasises the need for open conversation and negotiation in conflict resolution, offering an alternative to the disastrous route of violence. Beyond the literal meaning of his words, Powhatan’s speech bears symbolic weight, reflecting Native Americans’ tenacity and autonomy in the face of foreign challenges. The imagery of hiding provisions and fleeing into the woods speaks to a resourceful determination to resist domination actively. Powhatan’s discourse becomes a symbolic declaration of Native American autonomy, a testament to their willingness to protect their way of life against the encroaching tide of European colonialism.
Powhatan’s historical role as a paramount chief adds layers of complexity to his discourse. His leadership during a critical period in Native American history positions him as a central figure in the resistance against European colonization. Powhatan’s discourse, therefore, is not just a personal plea but a representation of broader indigenous sentiments and strategies. Understanding Powhatan’s historical significance enriches the interpretation of his words, framing them as a crucial chapter in the larger narrative of Native American resistance.
“King Phillip’s Speech”
“King Phillip’s Speech,” delivered by William Apess, emerges as a powerful expression of Native American resistance during the 19th century. Contextualizing this speech requires an understanding of the historical and literary backdrop. As the son of a white father and a Pequot mother, Apess occupied a unique position that fueled his commitment to advocating for Native American rights. In this unrestrained period, Native Americans faced increased violations on their lands, reflecting the historical struggles defined in Powhatan’s Discourse.
“King Phillip’s Speech” displays Apess’s moving call for Native American tribal unification. “Brothers, we must be as one as the English are, or we shall all be destroyed,” sums up the urgency and intensity of the situation. Apess, like Powhatan, emphasises the environmental implications of European colonisation, a topic that runs throughout Native American resistance literature. His evocative account of the English’s transformational influence on the landscape emphasises the environmental consequences of colonial dominance.
Analyzing Apess’s rhetorical tactics for communicating resistance reveals a purposeful mix of emotional appeal and pragmatic logic. Apess expresses not just the immediate dangers but also the need for togetherness, echoing Powhatan’s views. The parallel between Powhatan’s Discourse and “King Phillip’s Speech” suggests a common narrative of environmental deterioration and the imminent danger to Native American ways of life. Apess, on the other hand, makes a more direct call to action, calling tribes to band together against a shared threat.
The difference in tone and strategy exemplifies the changing character of Native American resistance throughout time. While Powhatan’s speech emphasizes diplomacy and peaceful cohabitation, “King Phillip’s Speech” takes a more aggressive attitude, reflecting the terrible circumstances experienced by Native Americans in the nineteenth century. Apess uses his unique position as a Native American author to communicate a firm message of resistance. This message spans historical periods and serves as a tribute to the ongoing spirit of the Native American struggle.
Cherokee and Lenape War Songs (or Native American Oral Literature)
The ethereal verses of the Cherokee and Lenape War Songs transport us into the heart of Native American resistance, where the cadence of music and poetry becomes a profound expression of cultural defiance. Within Native American societies, oral literature holds a sacred role, acting as a vessel for passing down histories, values, and, crucially, the spirit of resistance against external forces.
Quoting directly from the Cherokee War Song, the lyrical journey begins, “Where’er the earth enlighten’d by the sun, Moon shines by night, grass grows, or waters run,” invoking the cosmic forces that surround the warriors. This deliberate connection to the elements aligns their resistance with the eternal rhythms of nature, portraying their struggle as an integral part of the universal order. The symbolic imagery of enemies as timid creatures fleeing the warriors’ blows transforms the act of battle into a cosmic dance, infusing the resistance with a poetic and courageous essence.
Transitioning to the verses of the Lenape War Song, a solemn reflection unfolds, “Who am going out to fight the enemy, And know not whether I shall return again.” This raw admission encapsulates the uncertainty and sacrifice embedded in the warrior’s commitment. The plea to the Great Spirit for strength and success adds a spiritual layer, intertwining the personal destiny of the warrior with the communal fate of their people. The fragility depicted in these lyrics adds a significant human depth to the resistance story, underlining the emotional burden endured by those who stand in the way of invading armies.
The lyrical and cultural features of these oral works are examined to highlight the various levels of Native American resistance. Both songs use rich natural imagery to weave a tapestry that links the soldiers to the land, moon, and waterways. This link depicts the resistance as a harmonic dance with the natural world, stressing the warriors’ fundamental connectedness with the cosmic order. The Cherokee War Song’s depiction of foes as frightened animals and the Lenape War Song’s cry for strength highlights the emotional and spiritual components of the resistance story, which go beyond simple physical conflict.
Drawing parallels between the textual works discussed in the preceding paragraphs demonstrates the dynamic techniques used by Native American cultures across many media. While Powhatan’s Discourse and King Philip’s Speech use diplomatic language, the Cherokee and Lenape War Songs use music and poetry to express the core of resistance. This showcases the multifaceted nature of Native American resistance, where oral traditions add a layer of emotional depth and cultural richness to the overarching narrative of resilience and defiance.
James D. Rice’s work, “War and Politics: Powhatan Expansionism and the Problem of Native American Warfare,” significantly enriches our exploration of Native American resistance, particularly in understanding Powhatan’s discourse. Rice’s adept analysis serves as a guiding beacon, illuminating the intricate layers of political and cultural considerations that contextualize Powhatan’s diplomatic endeavors during the early 17th century. Rice’s situational framing of Powhatan’s discourse within the broader landscape of Native American strategies unveils a strategic calculus underlying Powhatan’s words. Instead of viewing Powhatan’s discourse in isolation, Rice prompts us to perceive it as a calculated move within a complex geopolitical chessboard. By recognizing the broader context, we glean insights into the political intricacies shaping Powhatan’s decisions. Rice’s contribution transcends a mere historical overview; it delves into the motivations, challenges, and diplomatic acumen of Powhatan during a pivotal period.
The scholarly depth provided by Rice becomes particularly evident in his exploration of Powhatan expansionism. Rice adeptly navigates the historical currents, shedding light on the geopolitical dynamics influencing Powhatan’s strategic considerations. Powhatan’s leadership, as presented by Rice, emerges not just as a reactive response to European incursions but as a proactive engagement with the complexities of Native American warfare and territorial expansion. Moreover, Rice’s analysis allows us to discern that Powhatan’s discourse goes beyond a simple plea; it embodies a strategic response. Powhatan, as illuminated by Rice’s scholarship, navigates the delicate balance between preservation and adaptation. The removal of weapons, as advocated in the discourse, takes on new significance when seen through the lens of strategic decision-making. Powhatan’s call for disarmament becomes a calculated gesture, a symbol of willingness to engage in peaceful coexistence while navigating the power dynamics of the time.
Jason Cooke’s scholarly work, “Savagery Repositioned: Historicizing the Cherokee Nation,” emerges as a crucial companion in our exploration, providing essential contextualization for a nuanced understanding of William Apess’s “King Phillip’s Speech.” Cooke’s historical insights serve as a key that unlocks the temporal complexities, guiding us through the 19th-century milieu that profoundly influenced Apess’s perspective. Cooke’s examination of the Cherokee Nation’s historical positioning becomes a lens through which we scrutinize Apess’s literary expression. Cooke explores the environment against which Apess voiced his appeal for Native American unity by contextualizing broader historical and cultural currents. The connection between historical reality and Apess’ rhetorical intensity becomes clear, providing a fuller tapestry for our resistance study.
Apess, as an author, dwells in the dynamic interstices of historical upheavals, cultural revolutions, and Native American tribes’ ongoing resistance. Cooke’s expertise enables us to appreciate the subtle dance between these aspects, depicting Apess’s words as resonances within a more significant historical symphony. The detailed awareness of the nineteenth-century hardships encountered by Native American tribes improves our respect for Apess’s plea for togetherness. Furthermore, Cooke’s work emphasizes the multidimensional character of Native American resistance throughout time. It focuses on the adaptive tactics used by Native American groups as they dealt with changing external challenges. Cooke’s historical account of the Cherokee Nation serves as a background for Apess’s appeal for unification, highlighting the continuity and flexibility of Native American resistance traditions.
Conclusion
The examination of “Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War,” “King Phillip’s Speech” by William Apess, and Native American oral literature, notably the “Cherokee War Song” and “Lenape War Song,” demonstrates the multidimensional character of Native American resistance to foreign pressures. Powhatan’s speech shows a diplomatic approach, focusing on collaboration and the eradication of weapons of violence. William Apess’ ardent demand for unification in “King Phillip’s Speech” indicates a more forceful position, motivated by the obstacles encountered by Native Americans in the nineteenth century. The Cherokee and Lenape War Songs, as examples of oral literature, provide emotional depth and cultural diversity to the story. Scholars such as James D. Rice and Jason Cooke provide historical and contextual insights that help us better grasp the complex factors that shape Native American resistance. In essence, these works highlight the persistent spirit of Native American resistance and cultural preservation in the face of external dangers throughout several historical epochs.
Works Cited
“Powhatan’s Discourse of Peace and War” https://bc.instructure.com/courses/1782082/files/122957518/download?wrap=1
“King Phillip’s Speech” https://bc.instructure.com/courses/1782082/files/122957518/download?wrap=1
“Cherokee War Song” https://bc.instructure.com/courses/1782082/files/122957518/download?wrap=1
“Lenape War Song” https://bc.instructure.com/courses/1782082/files/122957518/download?wrap=1
Cooke, Jason. “Savagery Repositioned: Historicizing the Cherokee Nation.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 47, no. 2, 2023, pp. 126–56.
Rice, James D. “War and Politics: Powhatan Expansionism and the Problem of Native American Warfare.” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 77 no. 1, 2020, p. 3-32. https://doi.org/10.1353/wmq.2020.a747213
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