Statement of Need
Analyze Existing Research
Sid Smith, a former chief of police, rightly noted that one only needed to look at the evening news to comprehend that America’s law enforcement is being confronted with unprecedented challenges (Smith, 2016). The challenges also include rebuilding and regaining community trust and law enforcement legitimacy, which all agencies nationwide are experiencing. However, the agencies face a less visible but even more significant challenge: a shortage of police officers, which can be attributed to multiple factors. According to the United States (US) Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), despite a rise in the raw number of law enforcement jobs, there has been a more significant growth in the country’s population that has resulted in a gradual decline in the police officers to population ratio (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2017). Therefore, fewer officers are available to serve the population. In addition, a low number of people are applying for agency positions but the quality of most applicants is often poor to be recruited (IACP, 2017). The implication is that, ultimately, the number of suitable individuals who qualify and are appointed as officers following the screening process. The applicants often fail their background checks or divulge disqualifying information during the hiring process (IACP, 2017). On the other hand, an increasing number of people are leaving the profession following a few years of service (Police Executive Research Forum, 2019). The high outflow of officers (retiring and resigning) has increased while the influx of new officers has reduced, creating the shortage.
Other contributing factors include generational differences that have resulted in a significant shift in the expected terms and conditions of work. The current generation has shifted from the common trend of being hired, staying, and retiring from a single agency, or within the same profession (IACP, 2017). For millennials and Generation Zs, leaving a job after a few years is common, including changing workplaces, and is perceived as an opportunity for experiential living and growing and developing within one’s career. In addition, PERF (2019) established that there is increased competition for the few recruited officers between different agencies, especially those located close to each other geographically. Further, the is a negative public image regarding law enforcement. IACP (2017) established that agencies strongly believed that negative public perception significantly affected interest in the profession and effective recruitment. Therefore, only a few individuals apply to become law enforcement officers. Other factors, as outlined by Mellen (2021), include the COVID-19 pandemic, lengthy and complex entrance requirements, low national unemployment, and a strong job market.
The rationale behind the shortage of police officers is complex, but its impact is evident as the agencies and departments continue struggling to recruit and retain officers. However, while multiple factors are attributed to the police shortage, as highlighted, the most critical factor is the negative perception of law enforcement. Police scrutiny, recording of cellphone interactions between the public and police, media coverage, and popular portrayals of the police in entertainment have resulted in many of the population, particularly the young to view police officers differently from their parents.
Reports by law enforcement agencies, government agencies, credible research organizations, and credible published research by scholars and stakeholders in the field offer the best data for understanding the perception’s impact. For instance, Morin et al. (2017) note that due to this negative perception, most officers report feeling their work is becoming increasingly challenging, especially in light of the dominant national conversation of high-profile use of force incidents. Further, IACP (2017) highlighted that the perception is also attributed to an increase in the publicized line-of-duty death, including police killings due to community tension, for instance, the 2016 mass shootings in Dallas. Further, an earlier survey by the Pew Research Center revealed that approximately 81% of officers felt unfairly treated by the media, with 65% reported due to this treatment, they felt their work was frustrating and 31% reporting that their work made them angry (Gramlich & Parker, 2017) [Figure 1]. Based on these research findings, the indication is that negative perceptions affect law enforcement officers, contributing to early retirement due to anger and frustration, hence the shortage of police officers in the country.
Source: (Gramlich & Parker, 2017).
Similar data sources as those provided above are sufficient for providing credible evidence on the impact of the negative perception on the general public. For instance, the Gallup research on the population’s confidence level in major institutions established that in 2021, only 51% had a great deal or much confidence in the police, which was the second-lowest rating since the study’s launch in 1973 (Brenan, 2021). The confidence level was 48% in 2020, the lowest in the study’s history (Brenan, 2021) [Figure 2]. The negative perceptions have resulted in race wars and discrimination, primarily attributed to the negative publicization of law enforcement officers. For instance, Horowitz et al. (2019) established that 84% of African American adults felt that blacks are often treated less fairly than whites, with 63% of whites reporting feeling the same. Similarly, 87% and 61% of blacks and whites, respectively, reported that the American criminal justice system (CJS treated blacks less fairly (Horowitz et al., 2019) [Figure 3]. Therefore, the negative perception is not only directed toward the police but has a trickle-down negative implication for the entire CJS.
Source: (Brenan, 2021)
Source: (Horowitz et al., 2019).
The negative perception has trickle-down effects that make working for law enforcement unattractive resulting in low applications and recruitment, including early retirement resulting in police shortages. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), perceptions are tangible worldly experiences through which experiential data regarding our surroundings is collected. Perceptions depend on one’s mental capabilities when handling data, for instance, using memory to perceive a companion’s essence or distinguishing a recognizable fragrance. The recommended and validated approaches for measuring perception are based on self-reports which include but are not limited to magnitude production and estimation, surveys, polls, Likert scales, and forced choices (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In the context of this paper, the best approach to establishing and measuring the impact of negative perceptions towards law enforcement on the general public would be through Likert scale surveys. These surveys will allow the measurement of the public perception of law enforcement.
Problem Statement
Crime and public safety are among the critical issues taking center in most conversations in the country. The increased mass shootings, including other violent attacks, have raised the common opinion that the country’s law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, must control such violent acts. The trend has instilled fear among the citizen and made these topics the population’s top or only concern. The most recent Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) reveals that between 2020 and 2021, violent and property crime remained consistent while the aggregate estimated violent crime reduced by 1% from 1,326,600 (2020) to 1,313,200 (2021) (Federal Bureau of Investigations, 2022). However, the estimated number of murders rose by 4.3% from 22,000 (2020) to 22,900 (2021), while the robbery rate declined by 8.9% and significantly contributed to the overall decline in violent crime despite the increase in murder and rape rates nationally (FBI, 2022). However, according to The Marshall Project data reporter Weihua Li, the FBIs data is incomplete because only 63% of the country’s law enforcement agencies submitted data which was the lowest participation rate for decades, with only 52% submitting full-year data ( (Fuller & Jarenwattananon, 2022; Treisman, 2022). Further, according to the FBI (2022), the trends are not deemed to be statistically significant by the methods employed by the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NBRIS) hence the overarching message is that crime rates remained consistent. Therefore, crime rates in the country have remained high, with only a dismal decline being reported.
The high crime rates are occurring amidst a shortage of police officers to deal with crime. According to Statista Research Department (2022), the crime clearance rate by the police for murders and non-negligent homicides was highest in 2020, where approximately 54.4% of the crimes were solved by investigators and arrests and charges made. During the same year, about 46.4% of aggravated assault-related cases were solved (SRD, 2022). These figures highlight the importance of law enforcement officers in dealing with crime at all levels. However, despite their importance, recent trends highlight a decline in the number of police officers. For instance, PERF (2022) established that law enforcement agencies were presently filling only 93% of the authorized positions available. In addition, fewer new officers were hired among the responding agencies, while resignations and retirements increased between 2020 and 2021 (PERF, 2022). Specifically, there was a 5% decrease in the hiring rate, an 18% increase in the resignation rate, and a 45% increase in the retirement rate (PERF, 2022). These trends highlight the rationale behind the decline in the number of police officers.
The reduction in hiring and increase in retirement and resignation can be attributed to multiple factors, as provided by IACP (2017), PERF (2019), and Mellen (2021) above. However, the negative perception towards law enforcement is considered among the primary contributors to the reduced recruitment rates and increased retirement and resignation rates. Numerous strategies have been put in place to increase the hiring and retention of police officers. For instance, enhancement of the hiring practices via recruiting and hiring unit, increasing pay and benefits, and reducing the scrutiny requirements, to mention a few (Arble & Arnetz, 2021; DeLord & York, 2017). Despite these efforts, the rates of recruitment remain low while those of resignation and retirement remain high, indicating and justifying the negative perception as a significant contributor that needs to be addressed. As highlighted above, the negative perception affects the public, law enforcement officers, and CJS. Therefore, there is a need to establish strategies to improve the image of law enforcement in public.
Solution Definition and Evaluation
In various cities, police departments are understaffed, often not due to a lack of funding but to insufficient candidates to fill the vacant position amidst an increased rate of resignation and retirement. Given the high rates of crime highlighted above, the indication is that policing in the country is facing a crisis. Presently, there is a lack of clarity regarding who will be future officers and deputies (PERF, 2019). More innovative and streamlined recruitment methods are replacing traditional ones, and money is no longer a motivating factor for the younger generation to join and remain in the force (PERF, 2019). The work dynamics are also transforming, where fighting crime is important but not enough (PERF, 2019). Today, the police department needs staff who understand their emergent role as street workers who address societal ill, for instance, substance abuse and addiction, mental illness, and homelessness (PERF, 2019). In addition, staff who understand novel approaches to committing crimes such as cybercrime. However, regardless of the imminent need, the negative perception towards law enforcement discourages access to such staff as only a few individuals apply for the positions. The negative perception further affects existing staff resulting in resignations and early retirements as the officers feel frustrated and angered by the work. The negative perceptions, as highlighted above, have been due to negative publicization in the media and negative police encounters. In this context, law enforcement agencies must increase their efforts and establish techniques for improving their public image and encourage applications for vacant positions and retention of employees.
The most appropriate strategy for improving law enforcement’s public image is through the promotion of community engagement through the introduction of body-worn cameras (BWCs). Community engagement involves collaboratively working through inspired action and learning to create and realize bold visions for a shared future (Verlaan, 2018). At the core of such engagement is social innovation. Innovation is the design and implementation of solutions, the implication being conceptual, process, product, or organizational change toward improving individuals’ and communities’ welfare and well-being (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2021). Therefore, by promoting community engagement through the introduction of BWCs, the communities can access the real experiences of the officers and create a feeling of safety due to the sense of accountability. As a result, it improves public perception and improves recruitment rates.
The development of a research question guided the search for the solution to the problem. The research question was, “What strategies can be used to improve the perception of law enforcement?” The research to establish the efficacy of using BWC was done through a search of evidence from multiple credible databases related to the field, Google Scholar, and a comprehensive internet search of sources by credible scholars and agencies in the field. The search involved the development of a search syntax that guided the search. The rationale is that search syntaxes are effective when conducting advanced searches as they simplify the search process by offering shortcuts and eliminating the multiple stages of an evidence search (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Finally, Boolean operators were also employed as conjunctions when conducting the literature search, specifically OR and AND. These operators act as connectors to enhance the search process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). These approaches ensured that the most relevant research was selected to justify the solution’s efficacy, and the methods were selected following a comprehensive review of the literature. They were established to be valid and reliable in a literature search to select the most appropriate evidence.
Further, to establish the effectiveness of the methods, the evidence and data were evaluated through a descriptive analysis where historical data and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) relating to community engagement and the use of BWCs in improving perceptions were considered (Shkedi, 2019). In addition, time series analysis where measurements of perceptual improvements following the introduction of BWCs within an established period (Shkedi, 2019). Finally, the data analysis was done using factor analysis as it is effective in establishing whether there is a relationship between a set of variables. The factor analysis approach reveals factors or variables describing the correlation between the original variables (Shkedi, 2019). Therefore, the analysis offered significant insights into the factors contributing to perceptual changes in law enforcement following the introduction of BWCs. The methods were selected after considering the most appropriate parameters and measures that would suggest perceptual improvements following the introduction of BWCs. Law enforcement officers have performance expectations (indicators) at work and from the public. In addition, the effectiveness of a new change takes time, and the impact of the change is due to the interactions and impact of the change on different variables. Therefore, these data analysis methods offered a comprehensive approach to assessing the effectiveness of BWCs.
The data set explains the solution by considering the rationale choice and deterrence theories. The rational choice theory (RCT) argues from a decision-making perspective. According to the theory, when there are a set of choices, each person will make the decision they believe best suits their conditioning at the time (Okoye & Chine, 2017). In criminology, RCT helps in understanding criminal behavior and can be employed in exploring the circumstances leading to the police to negatively engaging with the public by evaluating the circumstances and a complete set of variables in the exchange between the police officer and the suspect (Okoye & Chine, 2017). Ordinarily, the police officer is expected to be in a position of advantage and should exercise more restraint when dealing with a criminal, including calling for backup when needed (Okoye & Chine, 2017). This can reduce confrontations with suspects hence improving public perception towards law enforcement.
Further, the deterrence theory is a sub-theory of RCT, focussing on raising the cost of deviant behavior by increasing the severity of infractions and the probability of getting caught (Bedi, 2017). According to the theory, human behavior is rational, pleasure-seeking, and pain-avoiding creations (Bedi, 2017). As such, individuals commit crimes if the benefits exceed the expected costs. Deterrence theory posits that compliance with the law is a function of a moral framework plus an estimation of the cost and benefit of engaging in the unlawful act. BWC video serves as a deterrent by increasing the probability that the cost of an unlawful act by a police officer will be incurred (Bedi, 2017). Crime is preventable and reducible if people know the punishments and the probability of being caught is sufficiently high (Bedi, 2017). Deterrence theory divides into two parts, namely, general and specific. Specific deterrence targets individuals and involves subjecting offenders to punishment to discourage recidivism. General deterrence entails the public punishing of a person to dissuade others from contemplating similar offenses (Bedi, 2017). The classical deterrence theory has three elements: certainty, celerity, and severity, which will help explore if the BWCs have deterred police officers from brutality against citizens.
Certainty denotes the probability of getting punished for action, how swift punishment will be delivered, and the expected severity. Credible deterrence is a function of consistent, highly probable consequences for the offender, whether police officers or citizens (Newman & Clarke, 2016). Another cost likely to deter police brutality is the occurrence of psychological turmoil due to stress or depression to the officer or the citizen. Physical pain is another consequence that is likely to prevent the occurrence of excessive force or assault against officers. Finally, the economic cost of job loss or civil penalty is an essential deterrent for police misconduct. Therefore, considering these costs, the officers will promote positive behavior among law enforcement officers, improving their public perception.
The selection and implementation of the proposed solution were founded on a comprehensive evaluation of its benefits and drawbacks. The evaluation was founded on the DAC criteria that considered five parameters: relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability, and impact (OECD, 2021). Relevance refers to the degree to which an intervention’s objectives are in tandem with the requirements of the beneficiaries, national needs, partners, donors, and existing policies, and effectiveness is the degree to which the intervention’s objectives are attained or expected to be attained while considering their relative importance (OECD, 2021). Efficiency evaluates how inputs are transformed into outputs (results), sustainability evaluates the continuity of the benefits, and impact evaluates the direct or direct, intended or unintended, positive and negative, or primary and secondary long-term effects of the intervention (OECD, 2021). Therefore, the evaluation criteria offered a robust approach to establishing the solution’s benefits and drawbacks.
BWCs have been established to have multiple benefits, including improving conduct, accountability, and public performance by police officers. Improvements in these areas will be achieved through changes in the engagement of the police and citizens due to the encounter with the BWC video recording (Williams (Jr.) et al., 2021). The improved engagements and overall performance will create a positive image of law enforcement, resulting in more applications and increased hiring of police officers. On the other hand, BWCs have inherent disadvantages, including the risk of breach, they may make the officers hesitant to make decisions and take action, and the capacity of anyone to review the videos as consent is not required (Williams (Jr.) et al., 2021). Therefore, the drawbacks may cause work-related frustrations and anger, and negative perception towards the police, increasing retirement and resignation rates hence affecting the recruitment requirements.
The solution is like a double-edged sword with benefits and drawbacks, including for external stakeholders. These benefits and drawbacks were evaluated using the DAC approach employed in the internal stakeholder evaluation approach. From a communal perspective, the benefits will promote better community engagement with the policy and improve their relationship with law enforcement officers. In addition, it will help reduce violent encounters with the police and the perpetration of violence toward the police. On the other hand, the increased scrutiny of police work may deter police work by officers due to fears of persecution and increasing crime levels.
Further, BWCs are recognized as a strategy for law enforcement by the Department of Justice (DOJ) (2015). Officials aim to improve public safety, reduce crime, and improve public trust between citizens and police officers. Both civil rights and law enforcement advocates are encouraged by the introduction of BWCs to improve transparency and accountability in policing (Mateescu et al., 2015). BWC adoption will lead to the reduction of civilian deaths brought about by unlawful encounters with the police. Policy objectives will be achieved through the capturing of fatal police-citizen encounters on BWC video.
There are no specific national laws and regulations governing the use of BWCs and each state implementing such a program is required to develop and implement its statutes. In this context, case laws will be applied to make judgments related to specific situations. Notably, using BWCs is tied to several ethical concerns, including the right to privacy. It is common practice that the recorded videos should be made public. However, this might be considered a breach of the officer’s or the public’s privacy. Therefore, ethical laws relating to protecting one’s privacy will be applied in this context. In addition, there is an ethical concern regarding respect for persons or a person’s human rights. Therefore, laws on human rights protection will be considered to avoid any breaches.
Recommended Solution
The recommended solution is to introduce BWCs to promote positive decision-making by the police when dealing with crime and to deter the officers from unfairly treating the citizens. The intervention will promote positive community engagement and create a positive perception of law enforcement officers. The perceptual changes will result in increased applications for law enforcement positions and address the shortage of police currently experienced in the country. Numerous research has highlighted the effectiveness of BWCs in promoting positive engagement and perceptions of the police. For instance, A study was carried out on the perceptions of BWCs among citizens who had encounters with BWC recordings and explored the potential for a civilizing impact on the behavior of citizens (White et al., 2017). The citizens were asked questions through telephone interviews who had recorded encounters with police officers who had BWCs. The study’s findings showed how the respondents were satisfied with the treatment they received during their encounters with the police. The study made the respondents have a positive attitude toward BWCs. Some of the respondents were aware of the BWCs during their encounters. Thus, there was self-awareness, and the police responded to what was desirable socially. The study shows that there is a connection, which is positive between the awareness of BWCs and enhancing the perception of procedural justice.
In addition, Jenkins et al. (2017) conjecture that the BWCs have changed the outcome of police shootings across the United States because they positively influence civilians’ behavior when interacting with the police. The essence of BWC equipment can achieve a common good in the course for fairness and justice in police practices. In this context, a pre and post-implementation approach will be used to measure the solution’s success. As highlighted above, Likert scale surveys will be used for data collection. The survey will be founded on the perception of police officers by the public before and after the introduction of the BWCs. In addition, changes in the number of applications for law enforcement positions pre and post-intervention will be employed to establish the solution’s success. An increase in the number of applications will indicate an improved perception hence increased interest in the career. A time series approach will be employed where measurements will be made between four periods when vacancies are announced and applications welcomed. The other stakeholders, specifically the courts and judges, will be used for evaluations. The surveys will be issued to persons involved in the system to establish whether they positively perceive the entire CJS or the police alone.
Presentation Considerations
Communication with stakeholders will be made through the presentation of comprehensive reports. Since four application periods will be used, a report will be issued after each period to provide progressive communication and at the end, a final comprehensive report combining previous findings will be issued. The reports will be published in print media with national reach for the public and specific publications for law enforcement agencies and other stakeholders in the CJS. Tables and figures will be used to present the data to ease understanding.
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