Abstract
Childhood is a period of cognitive, physical, and emotional development that influences individuals as they progress toward adulthood. As children interact with their environment, they pick cues that influence their interactions with others. Technology has been vital in influencing the growth and development of the contemporary child. Technology provides the avenue through which children can experience globalized interaction, thereby enhancing equality. However, childhood is characterized by a lack of emotional and psychological maturity, especially in interpreting social experiences. Children, therefore, are at risk of ruining their childhood innocence. Childhood innocence perceives children as pure and fragile individuals who require protection. Historically, the perception of childhood innocence was absent as they were treated harshly and with indifference. However, contemporary society embodies childhood fragility as a critical component of their growth and development. The media constructions of children represent childhood fragility and Innocence; however, to a degree, both digital and virtual embody social stereotypes, misconstructions, bias, and gendered representations. Digital media also exposes children to harm, primarily through cyberbullying and sextortion. Practitioners are responsible for educating and empowering children and parents through healthy digital interaction, monitoring, and guidance.
Introduction
Technology presents avenues of positive benefits while also creating threats to the growth and development of children. Childhood representation in technology is a construct of influence dynamics and technological changes (Siskind et al., 2022). Media technology is one of the crucial elements of digital media whose impact shapes the society and representation of children. The contemporary child is exposed to media and several other avenues of technology. The presence of undeniable access to several versions of technology, such as social media and virtual use of television or radio in the comfort of their bedrooms at home, creates a development process that, in turn, shapes the perception of the children in technology (Hosokawa et al., 2018). Technology is a source of entertainment for children and an essential communication element.
When parents use technology in communication and as a medium of building relationships with their children, they are likely to exhibit developmental mains that construe technological representation. However, biased representations and stereotypes may falsify the actual state of children’s interaction with technology and impair their representation in digital media and virtual environments (Ward & Grower, 2020). In this context, it is crucial to underscore the definition of childhood, historical perspectives and societal representation, childhood innocence and its protection in the use of technology and the media, media construction or representation of children, and also the role of the practitioner in advocacy for children and childhood especially regarding the influence of the media, impact, and participation.
What is Childhood? Considerations of the Definition and Technological Influence
Childhood is a social construct that differs across different societies, intending to represent an individual’s earlier stages of development. It is, therefore, a construct of the state of being a child. Combining the elements of time and the state of childhood, it is defined as the characteristic period one spends as a child. According to Evans (2023), childhood refers to the point at which, in chronological age, an individual is below eighteen years old in most societies and thus lacks the emotional and physical immaturity present in adults. The eighteen-year chronological definition is an internationally recognized age for which childhood is defined. The interest in the children’s use of technology relates to their vulnerability, especially regarding their development and well-being (Walter, 2022). According to Walter (2022) it can be highlighted that the current statistics depict the presence of about one-third of children in the media. The lack of stability in decision-making, thought process, growth, and development, a construct of vulnerability due to the lack of physical and emotional maturity of children, creates uncertainty regarding the position of children in the use and interaction with technology and consequent representation. Childhood is thus a period through which an individual requires monitoring and guidance as they interact with elements in their environment that have the potential to influence their growth and development as they progress toward early adulthood.
Historical Perspectives on Children
Historically, children have always been vulnerable persons who need guidance in becoming responsible individuals. Children’s perceived lack of emotional and physical maturity has a historical significance where various societies and civilizations would handle their children depending on the cultural needs of becoming an adult. However, as understood today, the concept of childhood significantly differs from historical perspectives (Buckley & Budzyna, 2023). According to Buckley and Budzyna (2023), the historical context of childhood stems from the needs of the societies of the time. For instance, with a focus on the survival of families, childhood’s goal was to enhance the state of survival in families (Buckley & Budzyna, 2023). Survival instincts of ancient society developed the children’s contribution towards the survival of their families. Historically, the treatment of children was often harsh and thought of as a miniature of an adult without significant input. They were treated with indifference (Buckley & Budzyna, 2023). Children did not undergo any education and thus were apprenticed toward building the common goal of protection, provision, and the continuity of civilizations of the society.
Notably, the representation of children in art and pictures was quite rare, with the artistry of the child Jesus being the embodiment of childhood (Buckley & Budzyna, 2023). In the 16th century, the idea of education began shaping the construct of children’s perception of society. Education was oriented toward becoming government officials or clergy members depending on the cultural constructs (Buckley & Budzyna, 2023). The recognition of the value of the workforce during the industrial then constituted the orientation of children toward education. The digital media and, in essence, the concepts of the use of technology have created an avenue through which children are recognized. Technology has enabled the recognition of the dignity of children in modern times and, as such, the mainstream social and digital media in recognizing and vocalizing the needs of children (Lievens et al., 2018). However, it is crucial to note that while technology has gone beyond the historical indifference toward children, they are posed with several challenges due to technology, such as trafficking, abuse, and cyberbullying.
Position of Children in Society and the Changes Due to Technology Influence
The modern child has a significant position in the contemporary society. Modern society depicts the lives of children in the social context with a recognition of their dignity as in the same capacity as adults, just younger (Hill & Tisdall, 2014). The modern society perceives children as of great potential in their development toward adulthood. Various governments with an ingrained belief in children as the nation’s future provide several opportunities to children. One of these opportunities is in technological development (Hill & Tisdal, 2014). However, childhood is thus encumbered with social inequality (Hill & Tisdal, 2014). The opportunities for technological advancement create equality in access to resources. Technology creates an avenue of global interaction that provides these children with a similar capacity as those in privileged communities.
The society represents children through the emphasis on positive competence. Additionally, the contributions of technology, primarily digital media, reinforce societal acceptance of children’s rights, positive behavior, and the recognition of children’s needs. Contemporary society is characterized by digital media uproars against childhood indifference and mistreatment, thereby enhancing the recognition of children’s dignity. Through digital media, social organizations representing children can recognize children in distress and provide them with the necessary care that transforms their lives (Lievens et al., 2018). While the influence of the media is essential in the digital society, the negative impacts cannot be underestimated. The case of Amanda Todd illuminates the dangers of using social and digital media for children with guidance (Corry, 2021). Amanda Todd commits suicide after experiencing cyberbullying (Corry, 2021). Several children are intertwined in these harmful elements of the use of technology and, in essence, digital media.
Childhood Innocence and How it is Protected in the Technological World
Childhood innocence construes the perception of children as needing protection, fragile, and pure (Garlen, 2019). In the same line of thought, the digital media use of technology represents children as innocent and thus needing protection. Human and sex traffickers exploited Innocence was then exploited by human and sex traffickers. The spread of online child pornography exhibits the dangerous context of the media and the influence of technology (Cory, 2021). Child abuse through technology is also another critical element of the exploitation of children. According to Rajput (2023), a significant context of childhood exploitation through technology is the evolution of child abuse through tools such as social media platforms and messaging platforms. These platforms reinforce online grooming, cyberbullying, and sextortion (Rajput, 2023). The coercion of children in sharing sexually exploitative content and also the utilization of digital media platforms to lure children into abduction that leads to sexual assault and trafficking are a construct of technologically availed tools to the traffickers and abusers.
Protecting childhood innocence in contemporary society must also use technology by changing it as a force for good and capturing traffickers in their acts. For instance, various modern companies work with law enforcement to prioritize content moderation and create safe algorithms for childhood browsing (Nawaila et al., 2018). Additionally, digital media regulations provide parental controls to protect childhood innocence. These regulations also extend to mass media advertising and how they handle advertisements involving children (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2019). In the same line of thought, protecting childhood innocence also embodies children’s education and empowerment, especially against the potential harm posed by technology (Pangrazi & Beighle, 2019). Various contemporary governments have also instituted laws against child labor. The protection of childhood is the responsibility of parents, responsible adults, and the state.
Media Construction and Representation of Childhood
The media representation of children construes various stereotypes that falsify the actual nature of the child, thus setting unrealistic girls. In contemporary films and movies, the media represents different stereotype classifications of girls and boys (Solem, 2018). For instance, boys are classified as nerds, meaning individuals predisposed to learning and thus dull or have no fun approach to life (Perez & Valdivia, 2023). The flip side of nerds are jocks who are more muscular, attractive, and filled with charisma. Digital and virtual media also set the course for representing unrealistic beauty standards that children embody, creating a sense of low self-esteem (Lane, 2018). The media also portrays children in the classroom environment where there are the ‘mean girls’ and ‘class clowns,’ with the former being the epitome of school attention while the latter is constantly mocked by others (Solem, 2018). To children who feel odd or appear to not fit well with others, like autistic children, this may be a hindrance to their self-worth. These stereotypical presentations of children may be damaging to their growth and development as they not only set unrealistic expectations but also enhance the inferiority complex of those who cannot match these standards.
Children’s virtual and digital media constructions are based on adults’ perspectives on who they think children are and thus fuel misrepresentation (Robinson & Diaz, 2019). The media depends on screenwriters, directors, vloggers, newscasters, or owners of shows as the key figures in constructing the social image of children that they aim to portray in their various avenues of technological communication (De Veriman et al., 2019). While undeniably, the individuals may be parents and thus reserve knowledge of what constitutes childhood, they are not children. One can argue that virtual and digital medifaills to represent children and instead enhance a misconstruction or a misrepresentation of children (Thomas, 2021). The only person who knows the behavior of a contemporary child is the child and not adults posing as screenwriters or opinion-makers.
Digital and virtual media also embody a gendered construction in the representation of children. The implication is that girls are often represented as focusing on beauty and appearance, overly emotional, and passive, especially toward external control (Cote, 2018). The digital media portrays the girl child as needing protection and external guidance or influence more than the boychild. On the flip side, the boy child is represented as obsessed with violence, stoic, and active in their daily routines (Gansen & Martin, 2018). The media portrays girlchildren as cheerleaders and the boy child as key in sports, embodying the gendered misconstructions of passivity and aggression, respectively (Solem, 2018). The media’s passive and active representation of the girl and boy child also needs more diversity. The norms of childhood representation in digital and virtual media are inaccurate (Thomas, 2021). It is impossible to reflect the nature of every child in media construction. However, the repeated reconstructions exhibit the absence of diversity.
The media and digital representation of children is also a construct of the white population, where several children in the media are from white backgrounds. The Latin American, African American, or Indian American child is thus less represented in the media in comparison to the white child (Huguley et al., 2019). It is imperative to note that this underrepresentation of the actual demographics of children also exhibits the lack of natural economic conditions, especially that which is experienced by minority group children (Marcelo & Yates, 2019). The white child in a middle class or beyond family does not construe the actual status of children in society. This element reinforces the lack of diversity representation in virtual and digital media.
The media also represent children in the school environment. The child is always in school interacting with others in school activities or at home, preparing for school (Zhu et al., 2021). The school representation is diverse as it also exhibits the stereotypical context of antisocial behavior. For instance, a childhood from divorcing parents is shown to showcase bouts of violence and aggression. In the same line of thought, the child in the school context is represented in the sports environment, either being a cheerleader for a girl or football for a boy or, in essence, a particular sort of activity (Solem, 2018). The school representation of childhood is accurate, at least to a degree. However, only some children in society are school-going (Zhu et al., 2021). Some of the children are homeless, and others are not non-disabled, as showcased by their increased interaction in school activities (Mridha, 2023). Some of the children in the society are also disabled and are thus not represented accurately.
Additionally, the digital and virtual media representation of children from unstable homes reinforces negative labeling, which is often not the case (Drotner, 2022). Children from unsafe homes or those without parents go to orphanages and foster homes. Still, the representation is often in foster homes more than in orphanages, which would construe an actual representation.
Children are also represented in the media as dealing with a level of distress or being exposed to a potential source of harm or adversity. Childhood is portrayed in the digital and virtual media as a period of fragility and purity, yet these fragilities are often exposed to harm or threat. Likewise, adults are posed as significant protectors of children against the potential harm or experience of adversity. In virtual representation, especially in the news, children are not primarily present but only available when they face significant harm from adults or fellow children. The goodness and purity of children are less common in the news but instead represented in an antisocial context. The news also limits the representation of children who only use their images in wars or famines, symbolizing the destruction of childhood innocence or adversity. Thus, Children do not form the primary content of the war or famine but are used for public recognition.
Children are also represented in the media as an appeal to public empathy. Politicians, government officials, and the contemporary press use childhood videos or pictures to indirectly influence their agenda by appealing to the public’s sympathy (De Veirman et al., 2019). The implication here is that there is less coverage of the issues that directly affect children but instead present in furthering the discourses of adults (Roberts, 2021). The phrase ”children are the nation’s future” is repetitive across several media dimensions. However, the appeal is not to the needs of children but instead, when examined closely, is to further a particular agenda devoid of the needs of children (Roberts, 2021). Limited representation of children is often a construct of the power dynamics between adults and children. This is not to imply that children do not need protection. However, the actual representation of contemporary children is limited as the needs of adults to protect often overshadow the representation of childhood. In movies and films, the rarity of shows focusing on children alone exhibits the discourse of adulthood contexts of representation, overshadowing the representation of children.
Another fundamental construct of childhood representation is the normalization of children as performers. While it is relatively essential to appraise children’s good behavior, especially in positively influencing their lives and society, the contemporary child is represented in the media in front of adults doing something for amusement or exhibiting a skill (Garlen, 2019). Adults are invited to children’s activities in the school environment, such as singing or performing in an audience. However, the contemporary media has overstated the relevance of this representation (Charisi et al., 2020). Children are often exhibited in costumes, wearing makeup, and performing in front of adults. To the viewers, the perception of children as represented in the media can normalize children as performers.
The Role of Practitioners in Advocating for Children and Childhood
The contemporary child is facing several challenges of stereotypical representation, incorrect or misconstructed representations, possible exploitation, especially in digital media platforms, and also normalization of certain activities that may not be familiar to the average child, such as a child being a performer. Therefore, practitioners, including social workers and teachers, have an essential role in childhood advocacy (Garlen, 2019). The practitioners can educate children on the avenues of digital media that may ruin their Innocence. For instance, the threats of cyberbullying, sextortion, or abuse can be taught to children, parents, and teachers alike to enhance their guidance as they interact with the media (Rand, 2019). Children may be unable to comprehend the gravity of the harm posed by digital media, for instance. As such, educating caregivers and teachers is essential in identifying and mitigating the potential harm digital media poses (Kinnula & Livari, 2019). In the same line of thought, policymakers as practitioners can enhance advocacy for childhood in the media by ensuring the media embodies an accurate representation of children in eliminating self-esteem and other mental health concerns.
Policymakers and practitioners in the advocacy for children can also conduct and vocalize the research on the impact of the media on children and the public and enhance parent, public, or guardian vigilance in observing their children as they interact with the press (Gottschalk, 2019). Practitioners can also create social movements, organizations, and coalitions in the interest of children, giving them the space for expression while ensuring they combat challenges associated with media use at a young age (Yates, 2021). These coalitions and social movements are vital in driving change for the well-being of children.
The practitioners can also expose the dangers of stereotypical representations of children in the media to various media houses, scriptwriters, and directors, thus enforcing the actual state of diversity and childhood interaction (Robinson & Diaz, 2019). In the same line of thought, the practitioners should identify and shun misuse of childhood representation by the government, news, and politicians in the appeal for public empathy. The avenue toward correct and accurate representation of children that reinforces social acceptance of their dignity is ensuring the portrayals of children are constructive in both digital and virtual media (Robinson & Diaz, 2019). Practitioners such as social workers can also offer advice to parents on exposure to children’s content that glorifies positive character and development, fun games and sports that are akin to childhood experiences and reinforce positive growth and development rather than explicit content such as nudity, aggression, or violence (Macuh et al., 2018). Policymakers and social workers as practitioners should also work on ensuring the representation of children in advertisements is not a construct of consumerism ploy but instead representative of the needs and rights of children.
Conclusion
Childhood is the stage at which individuals exhibit the highest level of emotional and physical vulnerability that begins to end at the age of eighteen. Historical children progressed in community survival and were treated differently. However, contemporary society embodies childhood innocence as a critical element of their growth and development. Childhood innocence considers the facets of vulnerability and thus enforces the need to protect children. The contemporary child is exposed to the media, which, while posing significant benefits, can also potentially enhance childhood harm. The media construction of children is stereotypical, biased in the absence of diversity, misrepresentative, and also limited. In protecting childhood innocence, practitioners such as social workers and policymakers are responsible for educating children, their parents, and guardians on the dangers of digital and virtual media exposure and the kind of content that can positively enhance the growth of these children. Policymakers are responsible for ensuring digital media companies regulate and moderate their content on the account of children. While the media presents positive outcomes in technological aptness for children, childhood innocence should be a fundamental construct of protection of children in the use of technology.
References
Buckley, D., & Budzyna, D. (2023, November 29). Historical Perspectives. Pressbooks.pub; ROTEL (Remixing et al. with an Equity Lens) Project. https://rotel.pressbooks.pub/whole-child/chapter/historical-perspectives-2/#:~:text=It%20had%20been%20widely%20believed,and%20regarded%20as%20miniature%20adults.
Charisi, V., Gomez, E., Mier, G., Merino, L. and Gomez, R., 2020. Child-robot collaborative problem-solving and the importance of child’s voluntary interaction: a developmental perspective. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 7, p.15. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2020.00015.
Corry, F. (2021). Screenshot, save, share, shame: Making sense of new media through screenshots and public shame. First Monday. https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v26i4.11649.
Cote, A.C., (2018). Writing “Gamers” the gendered construction of gamer identity in Nintendo power (1994–1999). Games and Culture, 13(5), pp.479–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412015624742.
De Veirman, M., Hudders, L. & Nelson, M.R. (2019). What is influencer marketing, and how does it target children? A review and direction for future research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, p.2685. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02685.
Drotner, K., (2022). The co-construction of media and childhood. In The Routledge International Handbook of Children, Adolescents, and Media (pp. 17–24). Routledge. http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415783682/.
Evans, R. (2023). Understanding young people’s right to decide (p. 2). [online] Available at: https://www.ippf.org/sites/default/files/ippf_right_to_decide_01.pdf. [Accessed 13 Jan. 2024].
Gansen, H.M. and Martin, K.A., 2018. Becoming gendered. Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, pp.83-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_6.
Garlen, J.C., (2019). Interrogating Innocence: “Childhood” as exclusionary social practice. Childhood, 26(1), pp.54-67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568218811484.
Gottschalk, F., 2019. Impacts of technology use on children: Exploring literature on the brain, cognition, and well-being. https://doi.org/10.1787/19939019.
Hill, M., & Tisdall, K. (2014). Children and society. Routledge. https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ZlOgBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&ots=t49KF7p5cF&sig=GOJEmzWy5iupeH3iHQ_kR8Gr_II&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=true.
Hosokawa, R. and Katsura, T., 2018. Association between mobile technology use and child adjustment in early elementary school age. PloS one, 13(7), p.e0199959. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199959.
Huguley, J.P., Wang, M.T., Vasquez, A.C. and Guo, J., 2019. Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color’s ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(5), p.437. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/bul0000187.
Kinnula, M. and Iivari, N., 2019, May. Empowered to make a change: Guidelines for empowering the young generation in and through digital technology design. In Proceedings of the FabLearn Europe 2019 conference (pp. 1-8). https://doi.org/10.1145/3335055.3335071.
Lane, K.E., (2018). How Was the Nerd or Geek Born?. Age of the geek: Depictions of nerds and geeks in popular media, pp.1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65744-8_1.
Lievens, E., Livingstone, S., McLaughlin, S., O’Neill, B. & Verdoodt, V. (2018). Children’s rights and digital technologies. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4184-6_16.
Macuh, B., Raspor, A., Sraka, M. and Kovačiс, A., 2018. Media exposure and education of first to six grade children from Slovenia-parent opinions. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education, 6(3), pp.49-57. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/media-exposure-and-education-of-first-to-six-grade-children-from-slovenia-parent-opinions.
Marcelo, A.K. and Yates, T.M., 2019. Young children’s ethnic–racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), p.253. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cdp0000220.
Mridha, M. S. R. 2023. Constructing” the Others”: A Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis of News Media Portrayals of (Street) Children in Bangladesh (Master’s thesis, NTNU). https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3074996.
Nawaila, M.B., Kanbul, S. and Ozdamli, F., 2018. A review of the rights of children in the digital age. Children and Youth Services Review, 94, pp.390-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.09.028.
Pangrazi, R.P. and Beighle, A., 2019. Dynamic physical education for elementary school children. Human Kinetics Publishers. https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CFy8DwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=childhood+awareness+and+education+safe+use+of+technology&ots=4ONTH-WXG2&sig=HCasBs8UHhMphYuKb_juzbBfTOc&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Pérez, S. and Valdivia, A.N., 2023. Latina Representations and Media: Teenhood and Intersectionalizing Subjectivities in the Post-Network Era. In The Routledge Handbook of Ethnicity and Race in Communication (pp. 11-24). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367748586-3.
Rajput, S. (2023). In the digital age, technology has transformed the way we live, connect, and communicate. It has opened up endless possibilities and opportunities for growth and development. [online] Linkedin.com. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/unveiling-dark-reality-child-abuse-through-technology-rajput. [Accessed 13 Jan. 2024].
Rand, E. J. (2019). PROTECTing the figure of Innocence: Child pornography legislation and the queerness of childhood. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 105(3), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2019.1629001.
Roberts, J., (2021). Empathy cultivation through (pro) social media: a counter to compassion fatigue. Journalism and Media, 2(4), 819–829. https://doi.org/10.3390/journalmedia2040047.
Robinson, K. H., Díaz, C. J., & Townley, C. (2019). Constructions of knowledge and childhood: Addressing current affairs with children with a focus on parents’ practices and children’s news media. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 20(4), 324-336. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463949119888483.
Siskind, D., Conlin, D., Hestenes, L., Kim, S.A., Barnes, A. & Yaya-Bryson, D. (2022). Balancing technology and outdoor learning: Implications for early childhood teacher educators. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 43(3), 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2020.1859024.
Solem, A. (2018). Cheerleaders, Jocks, Nerds and” The Man”: Popular Representations of Schooling in Modern Television (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University). https://www.proquest.com/openview/3161e5a9703f8e1d4816408f133c52b9/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750.
Thomas, G.M., (2021). “The media love the artificial versions of what is going on”: Media (mis) representations of Down’s syndrome. The British journal of sociology, 72(3), pp.693-706. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468-4446.12807.
Walker, S. K. (2022, November 14). 5.1 Technology Use and Impacts in Children, Youth and Young Adults. Umn.edu; University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing. https://open.lib.umn.edu/technologyfamily/chapter/5-1-technology-use-and-impacts-in-children-youth-and-young-adults/.
Ward, L.M. & Grower, P. (2020). Media and the development of gender role stereotypes. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 2, pp.177–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-051120-010630.
Yates, L., (2021). Prefigurative politics and social movement strategy: The roles of prefiguration in the reproduction, mobilisation and coordination of movements. Political Studies, 69(4), 1033–1052. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321720936046.
Zhu, C., Huang, S., Evans, R., & Zhang, W. (2021). Cyberbullying among adolescents and children: a comprehensive review of the global situation, risk factors, and preventive measures. Frontiers in public health, p. 9, 634909. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.634909.
write