Introduction.
There is a growing need for an increased integration between cybersecurity and criminology. This requirement can be primarily linked to the artificial intelligence industry’s explosive growth, which appears to have outpaced the drafting of extensive regulations governing technology use. Numerous scholars and experts have studied the interconnections between cybersecurity and criminology to understand the aspects such as behavioural and psychological factors that lead to cyber-enabled crimes. Despite these efforts, this interconnection seems to broaden with time as technology continuously evolves (Maimon and Louderback, 2019, p. 192). Therefore, constant studies on the interconnections between cybersecurity and criminology are warranted to combat the rapidly evolving threat landscape.
This critical review aims to examine some of the many and constantly changing implications of cybersecurity on criminology that academics and professionals have researched. This review adopts an annotated bibliography approach to examine literary works separately from one another. Three empirical studies from different journal publications linked to cybersecurity and cybercrime will be examined. Each journal’s theoretical framework and methodologies will be examined and compared to other works of literature that have been conducted on the same. In the end, this critical review seeks to add to the existing knowledge of cybercrimes as well as recommend appropriate methodologies that can be implemented to enhance the quality of findings.
The first journal by Tatarinova et al. (2016) seeks to investigate how cybercrimes have evolved over time with the advancements in technology. In this investigation, the authors also look to analyse cybercrimes that have often been overlooked even though they are practised on a regular basis. In addition, they incorporate feminist theory into their analysis to explore how cybercrimes affect genders differently. Banerjee and Singh (2021) found that women are disproportionately affected by cybercrimes in society. Through the findings by Tatarinova et al. (2016), the assertion that women are more targeted by cybercriminals can be confirmed or disapproved. This article is specifically selected since it looks to address social issues that affect society. Its findings may be crucial in improving criminology approaches towards cybercrimes targeting specific members of society.
The second article by Moon et al. (2010) aims to investigate the predictors of cybercrimes among adolescents. Through this research, the researchers aim to identify key indicators of potential cybercriminals among adolescents. Adolescents have often been deemed vulnerable members of the population due to their slow development. Being considered at-risk members of society, this study’s findings can help create strategies that can prevent these individuals from causing harm to others. The main reason for selecting this study is because it is geared towards having a societal impact. Findings from this study can inform the field of criminology on how to identify risk indicators among teenage cybercriminals and help prevent them from becoming notorious criminals.
Apau and Koranteng’s (2009) study will be the third and final article to be critically reviewed. This study is conducted in Ghana to understand consumers’ perceptions of cybercrimes aimed at e-commerce platforms. In addition to understanding the perceptions of consumers, this review also reveals the difference between consumer perceptions in the developed and developing worlds. With the level of technology varying in different parts of the world, it is unsurprising that some factors influencing consumer perceptions may differ. This study was selected for review because of its objective of understanding consumer perceptions of cybercrimes. Consumers are the prime targets of cybercriminals. Thus, understanding their perceptions reveals areas that they feel most vulnerable that the field of criminology can help secure.
Article 1 Critical Review: “Criminological Analysis of Determinants of Cybercrime Technologies” by Tatarinova et al. (2016).
Aims and Purpose.
Tatarinova et al. (2016) conducted their research in an attempt to understand how cybercrimes have evolved with technological advancements. This article comes after various regulatory bodies have expressed the challenges in addressing cybercrimes due to their present sophisticated nature. In addition to exploring the evolution of cybercrimes, the researchers also look to examine how cybercrimes affect each gender differently. To achieve this objective, they employ the feminist theory, which argues that cybercriminals unevenly target females. Studies have supported this argument, stating that social constructs and political frameworks that are in place have largely put women at a position of disadvantage (Cobb 2019; Khan et al. 2013). Through this analysis, the researchers hope to add to existing knowledge on cybersecurity so that law enforcement agencies are able to identify the present nature of cybercrimes from a technological and social perspective.
Methodology.
This study adopts a mixed design that entails quantitative and qualitative methods. To be specific, comparative analysis is the qualitative approach applied by the researchers to help analyse the subject in depth. Descriptive statistics are key to the findings’ accuracy as they present data-driven insights through numerical data.
The researchers use primary data for their analysis. The researchers use a systematic literature review (SLR) to collect relevant data. Tatarinova et al. (2016) state that systematic literature reviews are of great importance to the study as they allow the researchers to examine data from a large volume of sources, identifying any insights or evidence that can be useful to the study. Using SLR, the data is collected from sources such as company reports, government publications and security reports. These sources of data collection offer the study a significant strength as they provide the researchers with access to first-hand information. Bloomfield and Fisher (2019, p.28) found that first-hand information guarantees high validity as it is not tampered with from its original source.
Once collected, the data goes through a screening process to identify any wrong entries or misspellings that may have been unknowingly included. The screening process also enhances the reliability of findings by ensuring that the data used is accurate. To enhance the reliability of the screening process, Tatarinova et al. (2016) adopt an automated approach known as intelligent document recognition (IDR). This approach is taken in an attempt to reduce mistakes that may arise from screening manually. Manual screening is susceptible to human error as individuals may overlook some important inconsistencies or errors. Most humans would describe manual screening as a boring process that involves repetitive tasks. However, automatic methods such as IDR are likely to perform these operations with ease and efficiency as they employ AI technology that combines different software. This technology digitises documents, processes them and stores them so that researchers can easily extract data.
However, despite the strengths presented by the study’s design, it also has some weaknesses that may have an impact on its overall quality. One of its major weaknesses is with regard to the use of primary data. While primary data is considered highly valuable due to its undisturbed nature, it is likely to misguide the findings. With primary data being restricted to a particular period or place, it cannot be viewed as a representation of the whole. Representative data is that which takes into account changes that have taken place and reduces any kind of bias that is likely to emerge.
Findings and Discussion.
The study findings are insightful and can be used to advance the existing knowledge of cybercrimes in criminology. One of the most important findings by the researchers is that women are indeed more vulnerable to cybercrimes. Through analysing the primary data, the researchers identified that women had made more cybercrime complaints compared to men. These findings align with assertions by Al-Nasarwi (2021) that women are mainly victimised due to the social constructs and political landscapes that have been established against them. According to Tatarinova et al. (2016), society has often tended to look at the problems with the victims rather than the perpetrators. As much focus is placed on the victims, perpetrators have grown in confidence to direct their cyber-attacks at women, knowing that they are most likely not to be held accountable.
Some studies have, however, refuted these claims that women are specifically targeted due to the social constructs and political landscapes. According to Balunkeswari and Mishra (2023), there have been massive improvements in integrating women’s rights into cybersecurity regulations. Countries around the globe have collaborated to ensure that cybersecurity policies recognise women as a vulnerable population that requires a friendly environment that allows them to communicate and engage freely on internet platforms. In addition, Balunkeswari and Mishra (2023) also found that there have been awareness campaigns across continents aimed at training women on strategies to safeguard themselves from cyber-attacks. Thus, other scholars argue against the finding by Tatarinova et al. (2016) by stating that the cybersecurity threat posed against women has reduced with time.
In addition to exploring the theoretical underpinning, the researchers also reveal findings regarding some of the most notorious cybercrimes that have largely gone unnoticed. These crimes identified by the researchers are such as time theft and data deletion. According to Snider (2022), data deletion is one of the oldest cyber security threats, which has given law enforcement agencies a difficult time addressing it. Findings by Lee (2019) also add that time theft has given law enforcement agencies difficulties in addressing it due to its complex nature. Tatarinova et al. (2016) find that these two cybercrimes occur more frequently than fraud and malware attacks. However, the main challenge to addressing these issues includes a lack of specialised skills as well as the associated regulatory clashes. Regarding regulatory clashes, Tatarinova et al. (2016) find that privacy concerns are involved in handling these cybercrimes. In that, law enforcement agencies may require formal approvals in order to examine the extent of a cybercrime such as data deletion. With such issues along the way, Tatarinova et al. (2016) open a discussion on alternative ways the field of criminology can adopt to address time theft and data deletion.
Article 2 Critical Review: “A General Theory of Crime and Computer Crime: An Empirical Test.”
Aims and Purpose.
This study by Moon et al. (2010) looks to analyse the generalizability of a general theory to elaborate computer deviance among adolescents. The researchers also look to explore the theoretical underpinning that low self-control is the primary explanation for every criminal behaviour, including cybercrimes. To achieve its objective, the researchers explore three main perspectives: the causes of computer deviance in a highly networked modern society, the cause of computer deviance using a national random sample of adolescents, and lastly, the generalizability of computer deviance outside the United States. These perspectives are intended to enhance the understanding of cybercrimes among teenagers in a developed country.
Methodology.
In order to achieve its objective, this study adopts a combination of quantitative designs and a longitudinal study over a period of two years. This longitudinal study design presents the researchers with a number of strengths to help achieve its objective. One of these strengths is identifying and relating events to particular factors. Schmidt et al. (2015) found that longitudinal designs can track changes over a period of time within cohorts of individuals. To establish a sequence of events using the research design, the researchers analyse factors such as academic achievement, stressful life events, fear of crime, secondary work experience and deviant behaviours among the research participants.
The data collection process was conducted in two waves of the Korea Youth Survey in 2003 and 2004. The 2,751 study participants were all Korean adolescents who were nationally sampled to enhance the generalizability of the findings. A key strength of the representative sample used is that it increases the credibility of the study. Moon et al. (2020) state that one of the key limitations of existing research on the topic is the use of convenience samples, which may be biased since conclusions are not based on equal probability. Findings by Festic et al. (2021, p.4) concur as they suggest that convenience samples are often selected based on ease of access rather than some quality eligibility criteria. On the other hand, the national random samples used by the researchers are more representative of the public as they do not contain any form of bias.
The selection of the national random sample around Korea is followed by data collection using the Korea Youth Survey, in partnership with the Korea Youth Policy Institute. The study takes advantage of this survey, which is often administered annually in the country to help parents understand various issues affecting their adolescents’ academic behaviour as well as any other stressful life events. Using the youth survey as the primary method of data collection presents Moon et al. (2010) with various advantages. For instance, Regmi et al. (2016) found that surveys enable research teams to access a large number of respondents within a short duration. In addition, surveys are also cost-effective approaches. As they are administered online, the research team does not have to commute to a research setting and organise participants. Considering that the study takes place across two years, the use of surveys for data collection aids in the team’s budgeting.
Data analysis through a series of binomial regression models follows the data collection process despite not mentioning any screening methods. While this study does not appear to undertake screening, it is exposed to unreliable findings as screening helps researchers identify any mistakes or inconsistencies within the data. Rashad et al. (2021) found that screening collected data enhances the validity of a study’s findings by ensuring that the analysis process utilises accurate data. Despite the lack of screening, the series of binomial regression models offer a significant strength to the study as they establish numerical findings that are used to arrive at data-driven insights. Five control variables are used alongside each series of regression models. Using these control variables enhances the internal validity of the research as they eliminate any potential effects of extraneous and other controlling variables. In addition, Mazzilli and Pereira (2019) found that using control variables during data analysis also allows for the determination of causal relationships between specific variables. As a result, research bias is significantly reduced by the use of regression analysis and control variables.
Findings and Discussion.
The study findings are insightful as they reveal information that can be used to improve cybersecurity approaches aimed at addressing teenage cybercriminals. According to the findings, adolescents are likely to engage in cybercrimes due to their delayed cognitive development. Kim et al. (2020) support these findings, stating that teenagers derive pleasure from exploring new events. Experimenting with different illegal software is an example of these exploration attempts by teenagers that are aimed at being pleasurable to teenagers. In addition, in the case of teenagers with peer groups, Wong and Fung (2020) found that their propensity to engage in exploration attempts is higher. This finding by Wong and Fung (2020) serves as a contradiction to the findings by Moon et al. (2010). The finding suggests that the growth environment can also have an impact on the likelihood of indulging in cybercrimes as much as low self-control. As a result, the claim that low self-control can be used as a predictor of deviant computer behaviour is contestable with the argument that other factors can have an impact regardless of an individual’s level of self-control.
While some experts agree with the findings by Moon et al. (2010), others indicate that self-control is not a reliable indicator of crimes on its own. Even individuals with high self-control are prone to thrill-seeking due to biological facts that associate children and adolescents with a strong desire for exploration. The author’s low self-control theory has critics who argue that other variables, like a nurturing environment, are better predictors of teenage cybercrimes than self-control. People in supportive environments are less likely to commit cybercrimes, while those in less supportive environments are more likely to pursue thrills without thinking about the repercussions.
Article 3 Critical Review: “Impact of Cybercrime and Trust on the Use of E-Commerce Technologies: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour”
Aims and Purpose.
Apau and Koranteng (2019) carried out a quantitative study to find out how customers felt about cybercrimes on e-commerce sites. Consumers are now vulnerable to a variety of threats due to the increased digitisation of the e-commerce industry, most of which go unpunished. Law enforcement organisations have found it difficult to combat cybercrimes in the e-commerce industry, which is thought to be changing in step with technology development. It is important to research how these sophisticated cybercrimes have influenced consumers’ perceptions of technology. To gain a more in-depth understanding of consumer perceptions, the researchers employ the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). This theory is intended to examine the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour of consumers with regard to the use of e-commerce platforms. Technology is looking more likely to be integrated into consumers’ lives in the near future. Thus, the findings can help the field of criminology identify the areas of weaknesses in technology and help lead to the implementation of positive changes that limit the likelihood of cyberattacks.
Methodology.
The study adopts a combination of quantitative research design to explore its research problem. The quantitative research design is intended to provide the researchers with reliable findings that are representative of the entire population. Nattrass (2020) backs the selection of a quantitative design by the researcher as she finds that quantitative designs also have enhanced accuracy due to the incorporation of numerical data. The research design adopts online questionnaires as the main method of data collection that is administered through social media platforms. Data is collected from a sample of 476 participants who are conveniently selected across Ghana. Once data is collected, it is analysed using quantitative methods.
Similar to Moon et al. (2010), Apau and Koranteng (2016) do not mention conducting a screening. The lack of screening is one of the limitations of the study, as it is a crucial stage for ensuring the reliability of the findings. By moving collected data to analysis straightaway, these researchers risk arriving at false conclusions that are based on inaccurate or wrongly entered data. The screening process is an important step that should be carefully considered. As Regmi et al. (2016) found, it is preferred that the screening process is conducted through automated means to avoid any potential issues that may arise from human error. As they do not mention engaging in a screening process, they move straightaway to data analysis using the Partial Least Square method. Rönkkö et al. (2016) found that PLS is significantly vital for data analysis as it presents as highly reliable due to the reduced likelihood of errors. PLS enhances the validity of the findings primarily because it employs numerical data, which is highly regarded for its accuracy.
In addition to skipping the screening process, another limitation of this study that can be seen is the lack of a framework to address hypotheses that may arise. Being an exploratory research, hypotheses are likely to emerge during the study. While they established their own hypotheses prior to the study, the researchers failed to acknowledge that more may arise during the research. Thus, the study design does not accommodate new knowledge that may arise during the study. To improve the research design, the researchers should have used a mixed approach where quantitative methods complement the qualitative methods. Using qualitative methods alone is also considered as risky as using quantitative methods alone. The main risk of using qualitative methods alone is the increased subjectivity, which may lead to biased conclusions. When combined with quantitative approaches, this bias is significantly reduced as they use numerical data rather than descriptive data.
Another major weakness of the study is the use of quantitative methods alone. While using quantitative designs offers precision and objectivity of the findings, they limit a researcher’s ability to fully understand the complexities of a situation. Thus, it is encouraged that quantitative methods are used together with qualitative methods to ensure that certain aspects of human behaviours, such as emotions, which quantitative data cannot explain, are well accounted for by qualitative approaches.
Lastly, the researchers also adopt the convenience sampling technique, which is a non-probabilistic approach. Non-probabilistic sampling approaches are susceptible to bias as the study participants are often selected based on ease of access rather than following certain eligibility criteria. In addition to sampling bias, this type of bias is often linked to undercover age bias because some percentage of the participants may not have the chance of being included in the study sample. Due to these biases, the convenience sample increases the likelihood of false conclusions that result from unreliable findings. Peterson and Merunka (2014) found that addressing these biases needs combining convenience sampling with other methods to improve the representativeness of the sample, which leads to more reliable research findings.
Findings and Discussion.
The study findings not only reveal consumer perceptions of using e-commerce platforms but also the differences in e-commerce attitudes between developing countries and developed countries. One of the most notable distinctions the study points out is that, in developing nations like Ghana, the research setting, elders have a substantial influence on how people perceive cybercrimes and the use of e-commerce platforms. Li et al. (2018) agree with the findings as they found that elders play a huge role in shaping individuals’ perceptions in the developing world due to the values and ethics held by individuals. As a result, they have the capacity to transmit positive or negative beliefs about e-commerce to younger generations. Thus, consumer attitudes towards cybercrimes can be explained through the beliefs of the elderly. Those elderly who hold positive opinions regarding e-commerce platforms are likely to hold similar opinions and vice versa. Thus, from this finding, experts and law enforcement agencies should be aware that in certain parts of the world, developing countries in particular, consumer perceptions of cybersecurity can be changed if those of the elderly are changed. In that, these regulatory bodies should work to understand the perceptions of the elders as addressing them might have a major impact on that of their surrounding communities.
Additionally, another major finding of the study was with regard to trust in the internet as a medium. Apau and Koranteng (2019) reveal that there has been a general decline in trust in the Internet as a medium of transaction. According to findings by Hadlington et al. (2021), increased cybercrimes have played a central role in reinforcing negative perceptions toward the internet. Individuals are more aware of the sophisticated nature of cybercrimes and hence become increasingly sensitive when required to transact through the internet. These findings also explain why most consumers have aired their frustrations against plans to go cashless across the world. According to Apau and Koranteng (2019), the majority of consumers believe that a cashless economy will feature increased cybercrimes whereby vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, are the primary targets. By highlighting these consumer concerns, the researchers seek to urge law enforcement agencies as well as experts to deliberate and arrive at appropriate solutions that reduce the surface of cyber-attacks by a great margin.
Furthermore, the study also highlights the role of normative influences in shaping consumer perceptions. According to Apau and Koranteng (2019), individuals’ purchase intentions can be influenced by certain norms and beliefs. Findings by Bergagna and Tartaglia (2019) suggest that humans generally have the tendency to conform or deviate from certain societal norms in order to appeal to others. With regard to the use of e-commerce platforms, individuals’ perceptions may be hugely influenced by the experiences of others rather than their own. In that, even an individual with positive experiences from the platform may exhibit negative perceptions on the basis that someone they know had a negative experience. Thus, these findings suggest that law enforcement agencies should work to tackle the origins of consumer perceptions as they may occasionally outweigh the personal beliefs and attitudes of these individuals.
Conclusion.
This critical review highlights some important findings that can be implemented to improve future investigations of cybercrimes in society. These findings can be grouped into different themes, such as theories, methodologies and recommendations. There are a number of theories that can be used to explain the complexities of cybercrimes. Some that are analysed in this critical review include the feminist theory, low self-control theory and the theory of planned behaviour. While these theories have their strongholds in explaining cybercrimes, they are also limited in various ways. For instance, the feminist theory opens a vital discussion on whether women are vulnerable members of the population targeted by cybercriminals. However, a major challenge revealed in the study with regard to it is that it does not consider other efforts that have been made to see the number reduce significantly. Similarly, the low self-control theory also opens crucial discussions on whether self-control is a predictor of cybercrimes. However, this theory also ignores the role of factors such as the growth environment, which may equally have an impact on an individual’s likelihood to engage in cybercrimes. Therefore, the overarching finding from the review is that the use of theories should be carefully considered to ensure that a clearer and broader picture is painted.
If Moon et al. (2010) employed quantitative approaches alone to study the participants, the findings would not have been as reliable as using longitudinal methods, which are designed to track changes over time. Nonetheless, quantitative methods also offer the study significant strength in terms of the reliability of the findings. For instance, the quantitative methods help the researchers determine the most likely predictors of cybercrime among Korean adolescents by estimating the probabilities. The research arrives at findings such as adolescents with low self-control are likely to engage in illegal software downloads by comparing the probabilities of this cybercrime occurring. These findings are arrived at after data analysis is conducted through a series of regression models with the aid of control variables. The use of control variables also comes in handy. These variables enhance the reliability of the findings as they restrict the influence of other conditional or extraneous variables that are in existence.
A common limitation with two of the three studies is that they both avoided the screening process after data collection. As Tatarinova et al. (2016) point out, the screening process is integral to research as it enhances the validity of findings. By screening after data collection, researchers are able to identify incorrect data entries or misspellings that may have an impact on the final result. Even though Moon et al. (2010) and Apau and Koranteng (2019) adopt quantitative methods of data analysis, the reliability of their findings still remains questionable largely because they do not mention taking part in the screening process. As revealed by Tatarinova et al. (2016), it is highly recommended that automatic means of data screening be adopted. These methods include optical character recognition, intelligent document recognition and barcode scanning. The methods are recommended because they have enhanced accuracy and can complete the work faster compared to manual methods, which majorly rely on what can be seen by the eye. The automatic methods make it easy for the analysis process by ensuring that data is accurately reflected.
Further, while the previous two studies used a combination of quantitative methods and other qualitative methods, Apau and Koranteng (2019) used quantitative methods alone for their analysis. This approach allows for enhanced precision and objectivity of the findings. However, when compared to the previous two studies, it is found to have more significant limitations than strengths. For example, understanding the complexities of human behaviours, like emotions, is not best served by quantitative research designs. Therefore, in order to overcome this constraint, the research design ought to be employed in conjunction with additional qualitative techniques. Qualitative methods are not restricted to a certain research question; hence, they help in generating hypotheses as the investigation continues, allowing for an in-depth understanding of the problem. In addition, compared to statistical data, which is complex to compute, qualitative data can be quickly revised to ensure that the information recorder is up-to-date. Despite the weakness of the study, Apau and Koranteng’s (2019) research offers insights that could be vital for expanding criminology’s understanding of how consumers perceive cybercrimes.
The three studies identify several key themes relating to cybersecurity and its implications. An example of these themes is that consumer perceptions of cybercrimes are influenced by external factors as much as their own beliefs and opinions. For instance, from findings by Tatarinova et al. (2016), it is established that the disproportionate targeting of females through cybercrimes is influenced by other political and social factors that have been in existence since decades ago. In addition, it is found through additional studies that these factors have greatly been addressed over the years, with international bodies joining hands to come up with legislation that aims to address women’s special needs. Similarly, from the findings of Apau and Koranteng (2019), it is established that other factors, such as culture, have an impact on the perceptions of consumers towards cybercrimes. For instance, the researchers find that in Ghana, elders play a huge role in shaping the perceptions of individuals. This situation is aided by factors such as traditions and values of the community, which urge younger individuals to respect their elders even in circumstances where they may not be correct. Through this theme, cybersecurity can be enhanced if the field of criminology puts more emphasis on addressing the origin of influence rather than the individuals themselves. In regard to Moon et al. (2010), their key findings largely help in understanding teenagers and their predictors to engage in cybercrimes. While Moon et al. (2010) consider self-control as a potential indicator of cybercrimes, other studies dispute the argument, stating that other external factors that are beyond teenagers’ control may influence their likelihood of engaging in computer deviant behaviour.
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