Celebrity culture is a complex and ever-evolving phenomenon that shapes and is shaped by various social, cultural, and economic factors. One of the most significant factors that can influence the dynamics of celebrity culture is gender. Gender is crucial when analysing celebrity culture because it shapes how people perceive, respond to, and interact with celebrities (Semati & Zambonv, 159). It influences the roles and expectations placed on male and female celebrities and how they are represented and commodified by the media and their fans. Historically, gendered norms and expectations have played a crucial role in defining what it means to be a celebrity and how celebrities are constructed, marketed, and consumed by the public (Barron, 104). In recent years, gender movements have gained significant momentum, challenging traditional gender roles and calling for more substantial gender equity and representation. However, these movements have also been commodified and commercialised within celebrity culture, raising essential questions about how gender is used to construct celebrity image and branding.
The gendered nature of celebrity culture is particularly apparent within pop music, where female artists are often held to a different standard than their male counterparts. Although it has long been suggested that women face greater scrutiny than men regarding how they look, behave and perform. This essay will explore the intersection of gender and celebrity culture, analysing how gender movements are commercialised and appropriated within this context and examining how gender norms and ideals are constructed and perpetuated through celebrity image and branding. We will begin by defining postfeminism and its relation to celebrities and pop feminism and then explore the impact of social media on the mainstreaming and commercialisation of gendered culture, drawing from the works of Zeena Feldman & Jamie Hakim (2020) and Milly Williamson (2010). Finally, we will examine how the conjuncture of social, cultural, and economic factors shapes the dynamics of celebrity culture and discuss how gender norms and ideals are constructed and perpetuated within this context.
Postfeminism and its relation to celebrities and pop ‘feminism.’
Postfeminism is a term used to describe a cultural and social phenomenon that emerged in the late 20th century and early 21st century. It refers to a shift in feminist discourse and activism, focusing on individual empowerment, consumerism, and the idea that gender equality has already been achieved. Postfeminism is often associated with a neoliberal ideology that emphasises personal responsibility, self-improvement, and the pursuit of happiness through consumption (Semati & Zambon, 163). In this context, women are encouraged to assert their independence and agency by embracing traditionally masculine traits and values, such as ambition, competitiveness, and assertiveness. The ideology has also been criticised for its narrow focus on the experiences of middle-class, white, and heterosexual women and for its failure to address the structural inequalities that continue to affect women’s lives, particularly those of marginalised and oppressed groups.
In the context of celebrity culture, postfeminism has been used to describe how feminist ideas and language are appropriated and commodified for commercial purposes. Pop ‘feminism’, as it is sometimes called, refers to using feminist rhetoric and imagery by celebrities and brands to appeal to a younger, progressive audience. In recent years, many commentators have argued that feminism has been co-opted by industry and turned into a marketing strategy. Beyoncé, for example, has been accused of using feminism to sell records and merchandise. Her brand of pop ‘feminism’ is often criticised for being too superficial and corporate-driven to be truly empowering for women. This form of feminism is often criticised for being shallow and superficial and for reducing complex feminist issues to slogans and hashtags that can be easily marketed and sold. It also raises questions about the relationship between feminism and consumer culture and whether the commodification of feminist ideals undermines the goals of the feminist movement.
Emma Bell’s “The Insanity Plea: Female Celebrities, Reality Media and the Psychopathology of British Pop-Feminism” provides a critical analysis of the relationship between gender, celebrity culture, and contemporary feminist movements in the UK. Bell argues that postfeminism, a term used to describe a cultural shift from second-wave feminism towards a more individualistic and consumer-driven approach to gender politics, has become intertwined with mainstreaming feminist discourse within popular culture (Bell, 199). Bell focuses specifically on the representation of female celebrities in reality TV shows and the media, arguing that these representations often reinforce negative stereotypes about women and femininity while simultaneously positioning feminism as a commodity to be consumed by the masses.
She argues that the proliferation of these representations within popular culture reflects a broader cultural shift towards the commercialisation of feminism, where feminist discourse is increasingly used as a branding strategy to sell products and generate profits for media corporations. Bell’s argument is a powerful critique of how popular culture has co-opted feminist discourse and incorporated it into the capitalist system (Bell, 203). She uses case studies from reality TV shows like Jersey Shore and The Bachelor to illustrate how these shows use female celebrities as objects to be consumed by male audience members, who are then positioned as active participants in the consumption process. By focusing specifically on these types of programs, Bell highlights how they reinforce stereotypes about women while simultaneously positioning feminism as a commodity to be consumed by men.
In this context, Bell discusses the phenomenon of “pop feminism,” which refers to the co-optation of feminist ideals and language by mainstream culture for commercial purposes. She notes that while some feminists have criticised this trend for its superficiality and lack of political substance, others have celebrated its ability to bring feminist issues to a broader audience and raise awareness about gender inequality. Overall, Bell’s work provides a critical perspective on the relationship between gender, celebrity culture, and feminist politics in contemporary media (Bell, 195). She highlights how postfeminism and the commercialisation of feminist discourse have contributed to the construction of a particular kind of femininity celebrated and denigrated within popular culture while also providing insight into the potential of pop feminism to challenge dominant cultural norms and generate political change.
The commercialization of drag culture and its impact on gender norms
Drag culture has traditionally been where people who do not conform to traditional gender norms can express themselves in rebellious and unconventional ways. However, in recent years, the popularity of drag culture has increased, and it has become more mainstream, mainly through the reality TV show “RuPaul’s Drag Race.” As a result, drag performers have gained more visibility and recognition, and drag culture has been commercialised in various ways (Feldman & Hakim, 389). Because of this, many people have started to question the role of drag culture in today’s society. Some people believe that drag should always be provocative and never be used for personal gain. Others argue that drag has been commercialised, but that does not mean it cannot still be subversive (Barron, 174). It is important to note that drag culture is not just about dressing up as a woman. It can also be a form of performance art or even political activism. Drag performers often use their performances to raise awareness about various social issues, such as LGBTQ rights and gender identity.
Zeena Feldman and Jamie Hakim’s article “From Paris is Burning to #dragrace: social media and the celebrification of drag culture” explores the impact of social media on the mainstreaming and commercialisation of drag culture. They argue that social media has enabled drag performers, many of whom identify as queer or trans, to gain more visibility and recognition in a media landscape that has historically excluded and marginalised them (Feldman & Hakim, 397). In addition to gaining visibility, drag performers have used social media platforms like Twitter and Instagram to connect and build what Feldman and Hakim call a “drag community.” The authors argue that conventional notions of identity politics fail to account for the complex ways drag culture intersects with social media. Social media has also enabled a new generation of drag queens, who have used platforms such as YouTube and Instagram to connect with fans and build massive audiences. Drag performance is no longer confined to the stage; it has become an industry, with performers competing for attention on social media alongside celebrities from other fields (Semati & Zambon, 161). The authors argue that these new kinds of drag queens are redefining what it means to be a drag queen. They have rejected the idea that drag performance is about mocking femininity or female impersonation; instead, they celebrate the subversive power of gender play and encourage audiences to question conventional notions of identity.
However, the authors also highlight that when drag culture becomes more widely accepted, it can lose some of its original political and contradictory meaning. They argue that as drag culture becomes more mainstream, it risks reinforcing traditional gender norms rather than challenging them. This is because drag performers are increasingly being incorporated into the mainstream media and entertainment industry, and their performances are often being used for commercial purposes (Feldman & Hakim, 401). This can lead to a focus on the entertainment value of drag rather than its political potential. The authors argue that this is part of a more general trend in which subversive subcultures are assimilated into mainstream culture and lose their original meaning (Allen et al., 919). They discuss how drag has been used as a tool for political resistance by transgender people excluded from mainstream politics because their gender identity does not match their assigned sex at birth.
In this sense, the commercialisation of drag culture can be seen as both a positive and a negative development for gender norms. On the one hand, it allows for greater visibility and recognition of marginalised groups and can help to challenge traditional gender norms. On the other hand, it can also result in normalising certain aspects of drag culture and reinforcing conventional gender norms. The commercialisation of drag culture has created a new niche market and allowed for greater visibility of transgender people. Many of the trans community are low-income, meaning accessing necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter can be challenging. To survive, many transgender people are forced into sex work as their only source of income. It is important to note that the commercialisation of drag culture was not simply a response to a lack of mainstream recognition and acceptance. Instead, it was also motivated by an interest in making money. This can be seen as problematic because it suggests that queer subcultures are being commodified rather than celebrated or embraced by mainstream society (Barron, 185). However, it is also possible that commercialisation has helped. Overall, it is essential to take a gendered approach to understand the commercialisation of drag culture to understand its implications for gender norms and politics.
Gendered denigration of female celebrities
Milly Williamson’s article “Female celebrities and the media: the gendered denigration of the ‘ordinary’ celebrity” explores how female celebrities are often subjected to sexist and misogynistic treatment in the media. She argues that the media’s portrayal of female celebrities is often shaped by patriarchal norms and values that reinforce traditional gender roles and perpetuate inequality (Williamson, 118). Williamson’s argument is supported by evidence from her research and several other studies that have examined how women are portrayed in the media. Williamson focuses on how female celebrities are often subjected to gendered denigration: “the process by which individuals or groups are ridiculed, belittled and undermined via negative discourse and representation.” The article identifies three common forms of gendered denigration: the sexualisation of female celebrities, trivialising their achievements, and demonising their personal lives. Williamson claims that this type of coverage serves to reinforce traditional gender roles and perpetuate inequality by objectifying women to sell newspapers and magazines.
Williamson suggests that male and female celebrities are treated differently in the media, with male celebrities being respected and taken more seriously than their female counterparts. She argues that female celebrities are often subjected to scrutiny and criticism based on their appearance, with their bodies and clothing choices being picked apart in a way that is not applied to men. Williamson also points out that female celebrities are often criticised for expressing their opinions, while male celebrities are rarely questioned on the same issues. She suggests this is due to an expectation that women will dress up and act like “ladies” in public (Williamson, 119). She also means that the media tends to portray female celebrities as victims, with their stories often focusing on their relationships and personal lives. This is particularly true of female stars in the spotlight for reasons other than their work, such as actresses and models. Williamson believes that this serves to reinforce traditional gender roles and perpetuate inequality by objectifying women to sell newspapers and magazines. To counteract these adverse effects, celebrities should use their media coverage as an opportunity to talk about important issues.
Moreover, Williamson highlights that female celebrities are often portrayed negatively, with their behaviour and personal lives being scrutinised and judged more harshly than male celebrities. She argues that this reflects a broader cultural tendency to view women as inferior and to hold them to higher standards of morality and behaviour than men. The media’s portrayal of women as sex objects can hurt society, Williamson says. By encouraging young girls to think of themselves purely in terms of their appearance, the media may increase eating disorders and depression among teenage girls. Moreover, by presenting women in such a narrow range of roles—as either virgins or whores—the media devalues their contribution to society and reinforces stereotypes about gender roles (Williamson, 119). Williamson suggests that female celebrities must take responsibility for themselves and their actions rather than letting the media define them. She argues that women should be allowed to enjoy privacy commensurate with men.
Williamson also discusses the concept of the “ordinary” celebrity concept, arguing that female celebrities perceived as being “normal” or relatable are often denigrated in the media. The idea of the “ordinary” celebrity is one that Williamson explores in detail. She suggests that female celebrities perceived as usual or relatable are often denigrated in the media, while their male counterparts are celebrated for their normality. She also discusses how media outlets use women’s personal lives for profit, often creating stories based on rumour and innuendo. She suggests this reflects a cultural discomfort with women who do not conform to traditional gender roles and expectations (Williamson, 120). Overall, Williamson’s article highlights how female celebrities are subject to gendered denigration in the media. She argues that this reflects a broader cultural tendency to view women as inferior and hold them to higher standards of behaviour and morality than men, perpetuating inequality and reinforcing traditional gender roles.
General Role of Gender, Class, and Race in Celebrity Culture
Firstly, gender plays a significant role in shaping the celebrity persona. Male and female celebrities are often subject to different standards of beauty, behaviour, and performance. Women are often objectified and sexualised in the media, while men are often valued for strength, power, and masculinity. As a result, female celebrities are often expected to conform to traditional gender norms, such as being attractive, submissive, and emotionally expressive, while male celebrities are expected to be dominant, assertive, and emotionally reserved (Allen et al., 914). This disparity in the expectations placed on male and female celebrities can be seen in their respective careers. Female celebrities are often expected to maintain a “good girl” image, limiting their creative expression opportunities. As such, they choose roles that conform to traditional gender norms. In contrast, male stars are often given more freedom when choosing their professional paths because they are not subject to as many social expectations about how men should behave or look.
Secondly, celebrity culture is shaped by social class. Celebrities are often perceived as having more money and power than ordinary people. As a result, they are often viewed as having a different set of values and morals than “ordinary folk”. For example, celebrities tend to be associated with wealth, glamour, and fame. These are all characteristics that are valued in our society. Therefore, celebrities tend to be perceived as having more prestige and status than ordinary people (Semati & Zambon, 160). Many people believe it is impossible for an “ordinary Joe” to become a celebrity because they do not have the right connections or skills. As a result, celebrities have become objects of envy and desire for many people who view them as living in a world that is unattainable to most.
Finally, race is an essential factor in the construction of celebrity images. The media tends to represent minority celebrities as exoticised figures, often exoticised for their so-called “exotic” features, such as skin colour and body type. For example, African-American stars are often depicted with lighter skin tones than average African-Americans have in real life, while Asian female celebrities are commonly portrayed with long black hair that flows down past their waists (Semati & Zambon, 162). These stereotypes can make it difficult for minorities to achieve mainstream success and acceptance in the entertainment industry.
Conclusion
In conclusion, commercialising gender movements within celebrity culture is complex and multifaceted. While it is optimistic that feminism and gender non-conformity are gaining more mainstream attention, the commercialisation of these movements can also be damaging. It often reinforces harmful stereotypes and perpetuates societal norms that harm women and other marginalised groups. We must continue to fight against the commercialisation of feminism and gender non-conformity, as this can damage both those involved in these movements and society. By critically examining how gender is constructed and commodified within celebrity culture, we can better understand how these cultural practices shape our perceptions of gender and contribute to the ongoing struggle for gender equality. We must continue to fight against the commercialisation of feminism and gender non-conformity, as this can damage both those involved in these movements and society.
References
Allen, K., Mendick, H., Harvey, L. and Ahmad, A., 2015. Welfare queens, thrifty homemakers, and do-it-all mums: Celebrity motherhood and the cultural politics of austerity. Feminist Media Studies, 15(6), pp.907-925.
Barron, L., 2014. Celebrity cultures: An introduction. Celebrity Cultures, pp.1-216.
Bell, E., 2011. The insanity plea: female celebrities, reality media and the psychopathology of British pop-feminism. In the Limelight and Under the Microscope: Forms and Functions of Female Celebrity, Bloomsbury, New York, pp.190-223.
Feldman, Z. and Hakim, J., 2020. From Paris is Burning to# dragrace: social media and the celebration of drag culture. Celebrity Studies, 11(4), pp.386-401.
Semati, M. and Zambon, K., 2021. The global politics of celebrity: Introduction to a special issue of Popular Communication: The International Journal of Media and Culture. Popular Communication, 19(3), pp.159-163.
Williamson, M., 2010. Female celebrities and the media: the gendered denigration of the ‘ordinary star. Celebrity studies, 1(1), pp.118-120.
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