Introduction
In Southeast Asia, Vietnam was one of the significant countries, which made the United States focus more on it in the 1950s. Thus there was a war in Vietnam, and the French and United States troops fought as allies against the Vietnamese National Army with a plan to minimize or stop communism from spreading in that area.[1] From the nineteenth century, the French had been the colonizers of Vietnam and faced attacks by Japan in the course of World War two. Therefore Vietnam was determined to eject the Japanese and French troops from its nation, which resulted in the formation of the Viet Minh. The Japanese forces moved out of Vietnam after they were defeated in World War two, and the French troops remained in Vietnam. Such provided an opportunity for the Viet Minh to create an uprising against the French forces to reclaim their nation, i.e., the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Both sides were focused on a common goal but with different visions, like the French were interested in the Vietnam nation being unified and being connected culturally and economically to the Western world. At the same time, the resistance forces wanted a unified country based on communism.
Therefore, in 1965, the United States decided to use Operation Rolling Thunder to prevent Vietnam from becoming a communist nation but was unsuccessful in achieving its main strategic and tactical goals.[2] America supported Southern Vietnam and sent its troops and military advisers to that region. Therefore the United States intensified the war by increasing the number of ground forces and air strikes in the Southern parts of Vietnam. By 1968, the United States had approximately five hundred and thirty-six ground forces in Vietnam, and the northern part of Vietnam finally released the Tet Offensive, which was an eye-opener for most Americans about the truths and realities of the war, thus making them lose trust in their government and start antiwar protests. Therefore President Richard Nixon sent American troops to Cambodia to extinguish the supply bases belonging to the communists, and thus, more Americans became furious.[3] Various communist nations were in support of the Northern parts of Vietnam, and some included the Soviet Union and China. Almost sixty thousand United States soldiers perished in the war, and Vietnam lost nearly two million people. Therefore in 1973, there was a settlement to stop the war, and the American troops left Vietnam, and in 1975, the southern parts of Vietnam joined with the Northern side to form one unified nation.
This paper will therefore analyze how the Vietnam War affected American politics, American Social Culture, and the American Economy. American politics was affected by the war since it resulted in the public changing their opinions about the war; America used a lot of money on the war, thus suffering from inflation, high amounts of the national debt, and instances of unemployment, thus affecting the American economy. American culture was also affected by the war as many people used art, literature, and music to talk about and against the war, thus introducing new aspects into these areas. The veterans also suffered because of the war, which left a massive legacy in the nation. Some of these veterans suffered psychological and physical pains, and thus, the government had to pay them for their services to the country.
Historiography Of The Vietnam War
The War has garnered much scholarly interest and still consumes the energy of many academics. The conflict sparked intense debate amongst scholars, and the same has been experienced by people in general. Such exchange of ideas serves as a testament to the various points of view essential to examining the past and the remarkable emotions the battle keeps triggering even today, decades afterward. Different areas led to historians having disagreements regarding the Vietnam War and the engagement of nations like America.
One of these was why the United States participated in the war, whereby historians still need to find a proper reason for such involvement. Most historians failed to understand why the United States was interested in protecting a small nation that was nowhere near the United States and resulted in much bloodshed and deaths. Another factor was the inability of America to become victorious in the war smoothly owing to its military power and abilities at the time of the Vietnam War. Therefore, two main groups of scholars concerning their perspectives and opinions on the war exist. The first group of historians perceived the war as unnecessary and harmful and thought that the United States might have failed to aid in creating an anti-communist nation in the Vietnam War. The other group of historians perceived the war as necessary and thought that America had the possibility of becoming victorious in the war if it could have altered and utilized better strategies and tactics.
The first group of historians comprised former officials and journalists who wrote about the Vietnam War before the war ended. For example, Arthur Schlesinger authored a book in 1967 whereby the author thought that Washington’s reflexive anti-communism and its naive belief that the United States could decide the fate of the globe were the origins of the American contribution to the Vietnam War. Thus the American Policymakers had erroneously believed that China or the Soviet Union was using each Communist Party as their tool. They had neglected to acknowledge the regional roots that triggered rebellions within the developing nations. As a result, the United States made a coordinated attempt to defeat communism worldwide following the Vietnam War. Thus the United States fought enemies in Vietnam in a doomed battle in the rice paddies and jungles of Vietnam.[4]
Frances FitzGerald also gave related accusations about the war whereby this author stated that the United States possessed an unsurpassable ignorance of both friendly and hostile Vietnamese. The United States officials made a mistake by projecting their idea of a worldwide conflict against independence and communists onto occurrences when, in reality, the Vietnamese people were fighting to escape the effects of colonization and create an independent country. None of the presidents could have predicted the disaster which would ultimately come from such little actions, making the participation of the United States an awful mistake lacking culprits.[5]
Daniel Ellsberg also leaked the Pentagon papers, whose authors stated that each succeeding President knew their attempts could be futile in ending the Vietnam War. These authors thus questioned the American contribution to the war if they knew they would fail.
The second group of historians started providing their thoughts about the war around the last phases of the 1970s.[6] Guenter Lewy supported the American contribution to the war. This author stated that there was an ethical basis for an effort to avert a communist takeover of the region. (Cite). On the same note, Norman Podhoretz stated that America participated in the Vietnam War to protect Vietnam’s southern part against the dangers posed by the communists.[7] Therefore, the majority of the attention of the second group of historians was on how the United States was conducting the warfare rather than a great deal on the merits and demerits of its engagement.
Effects Of The Vietnam War On American Politics
There are a lot of controversies about the Vietnam War and such through various aspects like changes in public opinion and loss of trust in government, the rise of the anti-war movement and protests, and presidential power and use of executive authority.
Changes In Public Opinion
Various controversies surrounding the Vietnam War resulted in shifts in public opinion in the United States. The public’s views were shaped by the media, which ensured that the broadcasting of the events of this war was graphic.[8] The American contribution to the Vietnam War was based on its support to the various allies in South Eastern Asia. The United States also aimed to avoid a communist blowout within this region. The opinions of the American citizens about the war shifted when they decided to inquire about and doubt the participation of the US in the Vietnam War. Therefore the citizens started reducing their faith and confidence in the federal government’s actions since the government’s intentions were unclear to the public, thus contributing to such a shift in the opinions of the public. These citizens also did not see the significance of the war to the United States, and they also claimed that there were things about the war which the public was unaware of since the government hid them.
As stated before, the media was also a significant participant in the shift in the Vietnam War’s public opinion since the media portrayed the images from the battle in Vietnam War to the public. Therefore people withdrew their support of the war in Vietnam since there was a large amount of dread in the war, which the citizens could not cope with or handle. It was also the foremost period that the realities of war faced the Americans, thus affecting them, and they became frightened. It was also the first time American citizens witnessed broadcasted war on television as presented by various news reporters who had traveled to Vietnam to show the public the events of this war.[9] The media did not censor these images, and some civilians underwent torture and also perished in the war, which thus made the public to be frightened and thus changed their opinions about this war.
Also, the then South Vietnamese Government lacked democracy and was corrupt, yet the American government was providing for defense.[10] Such infuriated the public since they believed that America was democratic and thus should fight for democracy instead of supporting a non-democratic government. Such also made the public have doubts and disbelief about the real intentions of the American government in this war, and they felt that the regime was lying to them. Thus, they changed their opinions on the war. On the same note, the citizens of Vietnam did not want the United States soldiers in their country[11]Such also increased the public’s curiosity about their nation’s involvement in the Vietnam War. Likewise, many soldiers were perishing weekly in the war. Since the involvement was already being questioned, many American citizens changed their opinions since “The Draft” took many men to this war, and most perished. Similarly, the Kent State Massacre also contributed to the shift in public opinion about the war since many students were against the Vietnam War. Thus, they held peaceful demonstrations all over the nation, which led to the killing of some students by police officers during peaceful protests.
Musicians also influenced the public about the war since they wrote songs that talked about real issues in the war, and there was a connection between the various movements in the United States at that time and such music.[12] Therefore these musicians talked about the war as having immorality and a needless nature, thus influencing the people about the war and ultimately changing public opinion about the Vietnam War. Also, people changed their opinions since the American government was deeply incorporated in the war and thus utilized a lot of money in this war, an action the citizens believed was wrong since there were local activities on which the government could spend the money instead. Thus, as a result, even though initially, many people supported the American contribution to the war, they later opposed the war.
Loss Of Trust In Government
The public discovered that the government was deceiving them and was dishonest in their intentions of joining the war. Such was through the various statements of the government, which were distorted and varying. A good example is the 1968 Tet Offensive, whereby the government attempted to misguide and manipulate the public about the accounts of the war.[13] The armies of North Vietnam attacked, and the violent war started a chain of occurrences that continued to destroy American trust in the nation’s leadership. Such was regardless of how American troops terminated the attack, and terrible losses were suffered by the North Vietnamese forces and Vietcong troops. Therefore, people started questioning the credibility of their government because of the lies it told them, making the public distrust their government’s full disclosure and accountability.
Additionally, the war provided American citizens with an opportunity of getting information and details about the exploitation of information and the unprofessional conduct of their government, which thus contributed to their distrust of the government. Such was caused by the Department of Defense, which conducted research and then released the Pentagon Papers, which had details and information about the full scope and reality of American contribution to the Vietnam War that the federal government kept secret. Thus according to the Pentagon Papers, the federal government knew that the battle couldn’t be won for years but decided to keep fighting for politics. Therefore, the public became angry at the government upon accessing such information, and they started to distrust the then-federal government for hiding the truth from them. Such distrust was also based on the fact that the government manipulated people by not telling them the truth, as exposed by the top-secret research.
Furthermore, the public distrusted their government since they realized that it decided to become rough on its citizens to prevent and minimize criticism and political resistance. Such was when some Ohio National Guard officers murdered four learners as they held peaceful protests against the Vietnam War. The nation was bitter because it expected the government to protect its citizens, but it did the opposite by taking away the lives of its innocent citizens. Thus such an event diminished the citizen’s faith in the federal administration’s dedication to the principles of democracy and citizens’ rights and made the public distrust their government.
Also, the public distrusted the American government because the nation at that time had numerous domestic issues, but the government spent a lot of money on the external war. The public deemed the war unnecessary and thus needed the government to focus on the pressing domestic issues instead of engaging in the war, which was extremely costly and consumed much of the nation’s money. Therefore the public started to doubt and even question the government’s ability to deal with domestic matters within the country. They also thought that the government was only interested in satisfying its intentions instead of dealing with the issues of the citizens.
Rise Of The Anti-War Movement And Protests
As stated previously, United States citizens initiated various protests against the Vietnam War as they sought to change the situation after learning about the true nature of the war and the hidden motives of the government in the war. The protests began in various educational institutions like campuses where students engaged in antiwar demonstrations. At that time, the US government was getting massive support from the public, but some minorities from this population were against the war and who also voiced their concerns by the final phases of 1965. The hippie movement members, intellectuals, recognized artists, and students formed a minority against the war. New York City hosted the first demonstration by the public against the Vietnam War in 1963 and was smaller than other protests that followed later. Also, between 1966 and 1967, the rate of antiwar protests increased. Some students were outraged to learn that institutions were planning to suspend learner activists before reporting their identities to armed forces draft boards so they may be recruited immediately. Such resulted in increased demonstrations against the war as these students perceived such actions as unfair. Likewise, Martin Luther King’s assassination also fueled the public’s protests in 1968[14] Since, at that time, people were already questioning the involvement of the US in the war. Around January 1973, the United States warfare in Vietnam was almost ending, alongside the draft being suspended because of anti-war actions, including widespread protests against compulsory military enlisting.
Presidential Power And Use Of Executive Authority
The United States had an imperial presidency in the 1970s and 1960s, whereby the nation applied executive power increasingly. At the beginning of the war, the US citizens supported the nation’s involvement, believing that the government was dealing with communism. Numerous Americans started doubting the war, including the legitimacy of the leader’s decision to wage the conflict after the decade of the 1960s ended. The public later discovered a significant discrepancy between what journalists reported and what their politicians reported regarding the war. A senator known as Case, along with other participants in a debate, acknowledged Congress’ constitutional obligation to restrain the power possessed by the executive while focusing on preserving the equality of each of the three administration parts. [15]In response to these incidents, Case expressed anger and dissatisfaction by writing or endorsing legislation that would increase federal openness and limit the executive arm’s authority.
Effects On the American Economy
Economic Costs Of The Vietnam War
The American economy suffered in numerous ways because it participated in the Vietnam War. One of these economic costs was the massive increase in the United States national debt because of the war. The American government used much money to sustain its military operations in Vietnam during the war. Such resulted in the United States borrowing additional funds, thus increasing the nation’s national debt. Therefore the economy of the United States began straining, and the government could not finance some significant parts of its economy like healthcare, infrastructure, and education, among others.
Additionally, the United States suffered inflation in its economy due to the war. Such is because when the war was starting, the prices of commodities increased due to a rise in demand. After all, the federal government’s money increased in the war. On the same note, the demand increased since the United States struggled to produce commodities from its local population at that time since the money the government ought to use in the various sectors of the economy, like production, was directed elsewhere, i.e., the Vietnam War. The dollar eventually became weaker since the nation was not getting equivalent benefits or returns from the money invested by the government in the war. Yet, the government invested more and more dollars overseas in the war. Therefore many people needed products, but the products were limited in the market because of the lower production rates. Thus the United States economy faced an imbalance because of the war since the government was using the local industries to produce military products instead of manufacturing consumer goods. In the later stages, inflation was moderated by the government by ensuring that the money supply became restricted. Also, there was a rapid increase in the price of products like milk and bread in America because of the inflation that the war caused. The United States also experienced an escalation in federal taxes due to the inflation that the Vietnam War caused. Likewise, many American citizens faced unemployment due to increased unemployment rates in America following the war. The nation’s budget deficit also caused the United States inflation. Such indicates how the Vietnam War affected the economy of America.
Furthermore, since the American government contributed to the Vietnam War, it failed to invest in the various domestic sectors and issues like education, infrastructure, and healthcare. Such left the American citizens who depended on these areas of the economy to remain stranded and helpless. Such is an opportunity cost for the United States. The nation could have reaped long-term benefits if the government had decided not to invest in the war and instead use the money to develop its domestic sectors. For example, if the government could have developed infrastructure, it would have created several employment opportunities for the various nations’ citizens. These infrastructures could have additionally aided every American citizen in the long term. Also, the government needed an opportunity of generating revenues from investing in these economic sectors within the United States. Likewise, many soldiers were drafted to go to the Vietnam War by the government, and many of these soldiers suffered injuries before returning from the war.[16] In the United States, soldiers who are no longer capable of serving their nation by providing protection are regarded by the government and the citizens as veterans and get paid by the government. Therefore, the Vietnam War created an upsurge in veteran soldiers who were part of this war, and the government used a lot of resources to take care of and handle these veterans after the war. There are various issues that these veterans underwent during the war, like drug addiction, psychological problems, and physical wounds, among others. Thus the government used a lot of money to cater to these veterans, resulting in a significant increase in the budget of the Veterans Administration. Therefore the economy of America struggled to get back on its feet after the war.
Impact On Trade And Foreign Relations
The trade relations of America were affected by the Vietnam War because of the antiwar protests and movements at that time. Such is because the American citizens had varying opinions about the war and thus were mainly against the war. These protests resulted in these citizens who were consumers of products boycotting some of the consumer products made by specific companies that they thought supported the Vietnam War.[17] Their main reasons for not supporting the Vietnam War were that they perceived it as immoral, unjust, and unnecessary. One of the companies which suffered from these citizens boycotting products was Dow Chemical Company which the citizens saw as a participant in the war by manufacturing a deadly weapon known as napalm which the soldiers used against the enemies in Vietnam. Thus the trade was interrupted because of these protests and boycotts of the company’s products.
Additionally, the antiwar protests resulted in the United States government changing its trade policy, whereby the nation decided to minimize and limit trade between communist countries and America. Therefore the communist countries suffered from these changes since the United States imposed quotas and tariffs on the goods of import, and also, certain goods could not be exported to nations like China. Such actions aimed to discipline the various countries providing help to North Vietnam during the war. Likewise, the perceptions that the globe had of the United States were shattered and altered by the war. The original perception of America by other nations before the Vietnam War was that it was an economic powerhouse, but such changed to it being regarded as a failure; thus, these nations began rivaling the economy of the United States. Therefore such was caused by how America struggled to maintain and contain the war, exposing its weakness to these nations. Thus Germany and Japan are examples of countries that emerged as new economic powers because of the tarnish of the economic dominance of America.
Furthermore, the public relations of America were altered by the Vietnam War since the partners and allies of this nation started perceiving it differently. These partners and allies started not trusting the United States since it lost its credibility. Thus since other countries like France did not support the war, they ended up condemning the united states for its actions in the battle for its application of aggressive approaches. Also, the war disrupted America and Vietnam’s trade relations since Vietnam faced economic sanctions from the United States[18], which resulted in an end of trade between these nations. Such a sanction resulted in the exiting of American companies from the market in Vietnam. Ultimately, the United States lowered its trade balance because of many factors related to the war, like unemployment, inflation increase, and the oil crisis.
Military-Industrial Complex
The Vietnam War resulted in the United States defense industry going through massive growth since the nation needed military supplies like ammunition, which thus created demand and opportunities for various contractors who could satisfy these demands. Therefore, the companies that produced these military supplies after getting the multiple contracts experienced significant growth. Likewise, American citizens changed their perceptions of the military-industrial complex because of the Vietnam War since they discovered a close connection between the military-industrial complex and the United States government. Such resulted in these citizens losing trust in the government and the United States military.
Additionally, the defense industry amassed a lot of power because of the war since the American government was utilizing too much money while investing in the military sector. Thus the process of decision-making by the government was influenced by the defense sector. Such was because some of the Congress members were lobbied by the contractors working on the military gadgets to vouch for some initiatives and projects in the military sector[19], thus increasing the influence and power of the military-industrial complex in American governance. Also, the war created a profit motive in the military-industrial complex[20] The United States government, during some instances, suffered from inefficiencies, delays, and cost overruns, which occurred since they provided incentives to the various contractors working on the military equipment. Thus large amounts of profits were achieved by these contractors. Therefore, the United States government eventually heavily depended on the military-industrial complex and the defense sector since it had already used much money to develop and manufacture military equipment.
Correspondingly, the Vietnam War made the military-industrial complex very powerful, which thus resulted in the United States losing its focus on democracy, necessitating the control and moderation of the military-industrial complex by the politicians and policymakers. Such moderation focused on limiting the military-industrial complex’s impact on American foreign policy. Thus the United States implemented the War Powers Resolution to ensure that the President always involved Congress before participating in war and using various military equipment. Also, the Vietnam War increased the public’s awareness of the military-industrial complex’s effects on the environment. The environment and the people in Vietnam suffered severe consequences from the various military weapons the United States used in the war; some were poisonous. These, therefore, created negative and severe impacts on the environment for the long term, which the American government aimed to limit or stop through various stringent regulations on the application of poisonous and dangerous military equipment during the war.
Effects On American Culture
Impact On Music, Art, And Literature
The Vietnam War affected American culture through music in the United States since it resulted in many American musicians gaining inspiration and making music based on the Vietnam War.[21] Therefore the music by these American artists talked about the war directly, and the citizens of America were emotionally connected to the war, which explains why they engaged in various antiwar demonstrations in the nation. Such music talked about the consequences of the war on U.S. citizens and how the American soldiers struggled in the war. Some of the music spoke about the discriminatory nature of the draft, which only focused on selecting people from lower social classes while not including the wealthy populations in the army recruitment process so that they could fight in Vietnam. A proper example is the music by Creedence Clearwater, known as Fortunate Son.[22] On the same note, the Vietnam War also affected American culture through music in the United States since it increased antiwar music in the United States. A good number of the music produced during the war addressed the various issues of the war, which thus helped the American citizens propel their protests since such music related well with the war and the protests.
The Vietnam War also affected American culture through music in the United States since it changed the music styles and sounds in the United States. Such was caused by the rapid rise in antiwar music, which was different from the traditional music that initially existed. Thus counterculture-related types of music became popular during the Vietnam War, and music like folk and rock also became popular in America, thus changing the culture of America.[23] On the same note, the Vietnam War created other sections in the music that previously did not exist, including individualism and personal reflection and growth. The American citizen, after the war, started thinking for themselves, including their participation in the nation and their values, and the music produced during such times included these. Thus a new phase in music emerged because of the Vietnam War.
The Vietnam War also affected American culture through art in the United States since it resulted in the emergence of protest art, used by various artists who used art to convey their antiwar messages to the public. Also, the United States experienced increased feminist art during the protests against the Vietnam War. There were changes in art since women had various emotions about the war. They decided to incorporate their feminist perspectives in art, thus leading to the emergence of feminist art during the Vietnam War.[24] The feminist artists got their artistic inspirations from the social justice and individual rights areas which American citizens often expressed in their antiwar protests as they conducted these demonstrations in the nation. Thus feminine activism prevailed since these types of art became part of these demonstrations. A good example is an artist known as Judy Chicago, who focused on inquiring about things like patriarchal norms through the use of feminist art and also used the same pieces of art to celebrate females in the nation. Judy Chicago also fought for gender equality by using feminist art. This artist included women in the works of art, which showed how women were also part of history’s creation.
Moreover, Vietnam War also affected American culture through art in the United States by various artists making music album covers to convey and portray the messages and lyrics contained in these songs, mostly which were talking about the unnecessary and brutality of the war. The music produced during the Vietnam War had antiwar messages. It was politicized by the artists who ensured their messages were evident in the music album covers, which had art. Thus such shows how the war affected American culture through art.
The Vietnam War also affected American culture through literature in the United States by the emergence of postmodernism in literature. Therefore the writers utilized different views, fluctuating tale-telling, and disorganized storylines in postmodernism. Traditional artists who existed before the Vietnam War did not use such practices. Troops’ unsettling combat encounters inspired these methods in Vietnam. The lines involving being alive and dying, positive and negative behaviors, and realities and myths could have been clearer.
Similarly, protest literature also gained prominence in American culture because of the Vietnam War. Thus the status quo in the United States faced opposition from such literature, which had social and political consciousness. Such literature also talked about the situations in the United States, like inequality and social injustice faced by the citizens. Thus the narratives of politics and culture at the time of the Vietnam War faced a rebellion from the literature writers who used postmodernism.
Additionally, the depiction of women in literature increased because of the war. Many of these writers authored books indicating how the war affected people like children and women, thus making people interested in getting the other sides of the story, which was not initially discussed. Some of these literature authors talked about how women were part of the war, how they contributed, and how the war affected them and their families. Therefore American culture was changed by the literature because, before the war, the citizens perceived women as passive players in nation-building. Still, such works of literature portrayed them as active players, thus rebelling against the gender roles which existed traditionally. The women were thus seen as social change fighters, thus indicating how literature impacted the American culture because of the Vietnam War.
Role Of The Media In Shaping Public Opinion
The war affected American culture through the media, which shaped the opinions of the citizens of the United States. Such is because the media showcased the incidents during the war unprecedentedly, and it was also the first time these journalists broadcasted in such a manner. Therefore, American citizens could view the war from the television and feel like they were in it since the media broadcasted every detail, including dead soldiers and civilians. Therefore through the broadcasting of the war without censoring any images[25], the public altered their opinions about the war, and they rebelled and protested against the participation of the government in the war. Therefore the public was able to know the actual happenings of the war, and they thus lost confidence and trust in the federal government because of the press, which helped shift their opinions.
Also, the war ended because of the media since the media talked about the Tet Offensive, which therefore provided the American citizens with the previous truths that nobody, including the government, spoke about.[26] Therefore the public started proposing that the war could end because they saw the broadcasted Tet Offensive, a part well played by the media. On the same note, the opposing voices managed to get an opportunity to express their feelings about the war because of the press, which was present in the Vietnam battlegrounds and gave the public a taste of the events. The antiwar movements also received opportunities to talk about the war on television, which thus resulted in the public also joining the conversation and ultimately changing their opinions about the war.
Changes In Social Norms And Values
The Vietnam War affected the American culture by furling the antiwar and civil rights protests in the United States. These protests were already in place before the start of the Vietnam War. Still, they increased their intensities because of the war, whereby the goal of the many people in these protests was common even though they originated from different cultures and backgrounds. Therefore a new culture was introduced in the United States where the citizens could openly talk about ideas and opinions which were dissimilar and divergent. Also, the counterculture movement emerged in the United States as some citizens, like the youths, rebelled against several traditional values of American society. Some of these include conforming to the conventional nation and material wealth significance. Therefore the public started conversing about sexuality, feminism, and environmentalism.
Veterans And Legacy Of The War
During the Vietnam War, the government enlisted many United States soldiers, and they went to Vietnam to serve their nation. Still, unfortunately, most of them suffered from psychological and physical injuries. Some of them could not hear, while others had lost their limbs during the war, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder was also common among these veterans.[27] Thus they experienced flashbacks, depression, and extreme anxiety from the occurrences of the war. These veterans also did not get the proper recognition they deserved before returning to the United States; the public had learned the truth about the war from the Pentagon Papers and the live broadcasting of the events on television. Thus the public was furious with the government for its involvement in the war, and they, therefore, were hostile towards these veterans as they arrived back in the nation. Also, many of these veterans suffered stigmatization in society and struggled to belong, while some faced unemployment and others became homeless[28].
The war’s legacy was enormous in the United States since it impacted American citizens’ perceptions of their government, military, and nation. Before the war, America was perceived as an invisible nation without weaknesses, but the Vietnam War indicated otherwise, as the United States struggled during this war. The war also resulted in the American citizens finding out that their government could manipulate information and lie to them by not being transparent. Such resulted in many Americans’ doubts about the federal government to date.
Conclusion
From the above evaluation of the impacts of the Vietnam War on American politics, American Social Culture, and the American Economy, it is evident that the war affected each of these aspects and that the war had consequences that last to date. It is also apparent that different historians and scholars had various opinions and perspectives on the war regarding its legitimacy and the possibility of America winning it. Such is evident in the works of authors like Frances FitzGerald and Arthur Schlesinger. American politics was affected by the war since it resulted in the public changing their opinions about the war, as influenced by the media and the corrupt nature of the government of South Vietnam government. The public also lost trust in their government after discovering the truth in different ways, like Pentagon Papers and Tet Offensive, thus affecting American politics. The war also increased antiwar demonstrations after the public realized the reality of the war, and America had to limit its use of executive powers, thus demonstrating the impacts of the war on American politics.
America also ended up using a lot of money on the war, thus suffering from inflation, high amounts of the national debt, and instances of unemployment, thus affecting the American economy. The war also caused industry imbalance in the American economy and the payment of numerous veterans, which involved spending much money that could have been used elsewhere. Trade and foreign relations also suffered since various products were boycotted by the citizens, altering the trade policies of America and the change of American perceptions by other nations. Also, the Military- Industrial Complex became powerful and more profitable for the corporations involved.
American culture was also affected by the war as many people used art, literature, and music to talk about and against the war, thus introducing new aspects into these areas. More antiwar protests took place as they were influenced by art, music, and literature, which incorporated war themes. Public opinion also shifted since the public learned about the true nature of the government and had distrust in their government. Social values and norms in America also faced the consequences of the war, like the intensification of civil rights movements and rebellion against the traditional values of American society.
Lastly, the veterans also suffered because of the war, which left a considerable legacy in the nation. Some of these veterans suffered psychological and physical pains, and thus, the government had to pay them for their services to the country. The country did not correctly recognize these soldiers; some became homeless, while others became drug addicts. Therefore, the above-detailed explanations indicate the significant legacy of the Vietnam War on America regarding politics, social culture, and economy.
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Bell, Jordan B., and Ella C. Nye. “Specific symptoms predict suicidal ideation in Vietnam combat veterans with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder.” Military medicine 172, no. 11 (2007): 1144-1147. Retrieved from: https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article/172/11/1144/4578010
Cihankova, Hana. “Influence of Media on Vietnam War – Theses.cz.” INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON VIETNAM WAR, 2014. https://theses.cz/id/h0uo3z/Bachelor_Thesis_Hana_Cihankova.pdf.
Coffey, Cindy. “Visuals of the Vietnam War.” (2012). Retrieved from: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/58491521/Visuals_of_the_Vietnam_War_The_Impact_of_Television_on_Public_Support_Final_Paper-libre.pdf?1551057323=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DVisuals_of_the_Vietnam_War_The_Impact_of.pdf&Expires=1683303772&Signature=edCOQsyv4RSJ8p38Uf2XqcjPmKJuHSzMcq~3GMkaDL98OQXzT~rCPzqlOf-Y8hcyfES6lGNQeuCoANkoTTCaDAkFPSIW4~RlSKU~wAJhUdZw8DPLSgBZcInHE~AQlbWrqA7KY4F1uFJnAJ9Xhwp6v3HgbbhDUcx0-AvZKSfOuQLoIo6fdQ8bcAPu~uiXAXLD~BWrUeZpI9kB6OswYjkwx6jWdOy~LY3jThlu58ZHQXV03IpUZzyFguEX9MD3kTh5-rU6yoVEcAZQtdYNfQJ3scQOXVK5oatqUaWMVKpRGPHdXJfroUxWvPDFzYIFEqXXMym7a39JeY65LDGXTPSe9A__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
Cox, Ronald W. “The Military-Industrial complex and US military spending after 9/11.” Class, Race and Corporate Power 2, no. 2 (2014): 5. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ronald-Cox-4/publication/293653718_The_Military-Industrial_Complex_and_US_Military_Spending_After_911/links/56ba4c6808ae6a0040adebd3/The-Military-Industrial-Complex-and-US-Military-Spending-After-9-11.pdf
Dubinins, Dmitrijs. “Clifford Case: The Unknown Maverick of the Vietnam War.” New Errands: The Undergraduate Journal of American Studies (2015). Retrieved From: https://journals.psu.edu/ne/article/download/59654/59379/60441
Freeman, Nick J. “United States’s economic sanctions against Vietnam: International business and development repercussions.” The Columbia Journal of World Business 28, no. 2 (1993): 12-22. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/002254289390038Q
Gelb, Betsy D. “More boycotts ahead? Some implications.” Business Horizons 38, no. 2 (1995): 70-77. Retrieved from: https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA16793722&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00076813&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7Ea9193265
Graebner, Norman A. “Guenter Lewy, America in Vietnam (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1978,£ 9· 50). Pp. xiii, 540.” Journal of American Studies 13, no. 3 (1979): 439-441. Retrieved From: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-american-studies/article/abs/lewyguenter-america-in-vietnam-new-york-oxford-univ-press-1978-950-pp-xiii-540/4E152F7A0C92E27E404A04E8C6FC1946
Griffin, Michael. “Media images of war.” Media, War & Conflict 3, no. 1 (2010): 7-41. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1750635210356813?journalCode=mwca
Hadyniak, Kyle. “How Journalism Influenced American Public Opinion During the Vietnam War: A Case Study of the Battle of Ap Bac, The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, The Tet Offensive, and the My Lai Massacre.” (2015). Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/honors/222/
Herring, George C. “America and Vietnam: The debate continues.” (1987): 350-362. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1866621
Johannessen, Larry R. “18 Vietnam War Literature and the Arts.” AUTHOR Reid, Louann, Ed.; Golub, Jeffrey N., Ed. TITLE Reflective Activities: Helping Students Connect with Texts. Classroom Practices in Teaching English, Volume 30. INSTITUTION National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL.: 125. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=9593d08d1891a5b51916a3f3b32a873d8c140743#page=136
Mandelbaum, Michael. “Vietnam: The television war.” Daedalus (1982): 157-169. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20024822
Meiliana, Sylvie. “THE AUTHORS’CRITICISM OF VIETNAM WAR SOCIAL EFFECTS IN FIVE SONG LYRICS.” Jurnal Ilmu dan Budaya 40, no. 50 (2016): 5759-5778. Retrieved from: http://repository.unas.ac.id/158/
National Museum of African American History and Culture. “Mourning the Death of Martin Luther King Jr..” National Museum of African American History and Culture, February 3, 2020. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/mourning-death-martin-luther-king-jr.
Pach, Chester. ““Our Worst Enemy Seems to Be the Press”: TV News, the Nixon Administration, and US Troop Withdrawal from Vietnam, 1969–1973.” Diplomatic History 34, no. 3 (2010): 555-565. Retrieved from: https://academic.oup.com/dh/article-abstract/34/3/555/372501
Reppy, Judith. “A biomedical military–industrial complex?.” Technovation 28, no. 12 (2008): 802-811. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166497208001181
Rosenheck, Robert, Peggy Gallup, and Catherine A. Leda. “Vietnam era and Vietnam combat veterans among the homeless.” American Journal of Public Health 81, no. 5 (1991): 643-646. Retrieved from: https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.81.5.643
Schlesinger Jr, Arthur M. “The Bitter Heritage: Vietnam and American.” Democracy (1966): 31-32. Retrieved from: https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-abstract/46/2/425/2668921#no-access-message
Schulzinger, Robert D. A time for war: the United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975. Oxford University Press, USA, 1997. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8vNseCJ3D0sC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Schulzinger,+Robert+D.+A+time+for+war:+the+United+States+and+Vietnam,+1941-1975.+Oxford+University+Press,+USA,+1997.+&ots=JtJSYWkRS6&sig=PiDbpwgjLh2oo9i_3FPEcYCbw5Q&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Schulzinger%2C%20Robert%20D.%20A%20time%20for%20war%3A%20the%20United%20States%20and%20Vietnam%2C%201941-1975.%20Oxford%20University%20Press%2C%20USA%2C%201997.&f=false
The State University of New Jersey. “Questioning Executive Power.” Questioning Executive Power | New Jersey Digital Highway, 2023. https://njdigitalhighway.org/lesson/questioning_executive_power.
Topmiller, Robert J. The Lotus Unleashed: The Buddhist Peace Movement in South Vietnam, 1964-1966. University Press of Kentucky, 2006. Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qfBldO8esgIC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=+Topmiller,+Robert+J.+The+Lotus+Unleashed:+The+Buddhist+Peace+Movement+in+South+Vietnam,+1964-1966.+University+Press+of+Kentucky,+2006.+&ots=3DRdlAc25j&sig=OvxI67t-Pl9lfJXL50J73tCz5CI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Topmiller%2C%20Robert%20J.%20The%20Lotus%20Unleashed%3A%20The%20Buddhist%20Peace%20Movement%20in%20South%20Vietnam%2C%201964-1966.%20University%20Press%20of%20Kentucky%2C%202006.&f=false
Turner, Charles A. American Leadership and Decision-Making Failures in the Tet Offensive. ARMY COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLL FORT LEAVENWORTH KS, 2003. Retrieved from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA416144
Udorn, J., and Tuy Hoa. “OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER, MARCH 2, 1965—OCTOBER 31, 1968.” Vietnam War: The Essential Reference Guide: The Essential Reference Guide (2013): 191.Retrieved from: https://books.google.co.ke/books?hl=en&lr=&id=SCNXJkZirLUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA191&dq=Udorn,+J.,+and+Tuy+Hoa.+%22OPERATION+ROLLING+THUNDER,+MARCH+2,+1965%E2%80%94OCTOBER+31,+1968.%22+Vietnam+War:+The+Essential+Reference+Guide:+The+Essential+Reference+Guide+(2013):+191&ots=7ZnxP5KQzo&sig=VYx9XESzG0iJbziTbLv8g5iU8Oc&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Udorn%2C%20J.%2C%20and%20Tuy%20Hoa.%20%22OPERATION%20ROLLING%20THUNDER%2C%20MARCH%202%2C%201965%E2%80%94OCTOBER%2031%2C%201968.%22%20Vietnam%20War%3A%20The%20Essential%20Reference%20Guide%3A%20The%20Essential%20Reference%20Guide%20(2013)%3A%20191&f=false
Weaver, Gina Marie. Ideologies of forgetting: Rape in the Vietnam War. State University of New York Press, 2012. Retrieved from: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA416144
Wilson, John. “Bugging Out: Protest Music, the Vietnam War and the American Counterculture.” PhD diss., Queen’s University (Canada), 2023. Retrieved from: https://www.proquest.com/openview/00ff8cf765d18b5d13128b414bbc6bd0/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
[1]. Schulzinger, Robert D. A time for war: the United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975. Oxford University Press, USA, 1997.
[2]. Udorn, J., and Tuy Hoa. “OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER, MARCH 2, 1965—OCTOBER 31, 1968.” Vietnam War: The Essential Reference Guide: The Essential Reference Guide (2013): 191.
[3]. Pach, Chester. ““Our Worst Enemy Seems to Be the Press”: TV News, the Nixon Administration, and US Troop Withdrawal from Vietnam, 1969–1973.” Diplomatic History 34, no. 3 (2010): 555-565.
[4]. Schelesinger Jr, Arthur M. “The Bitter Heritage: Vietnam and American Democracy.” (1967).
[5]. Schlesinger Jr, Arthur M. “The Bitter Heritage: Vietnam and American.” Democracy (1966): 31-32.
[6]. Herring, George C. “America and Vietnam: The debate continues.” (1987): 350-362.
[7]. Graebner, Norman A. “Guenter Lewy, America in Vietnam (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1978,£ 9· 50). Pp. xiii, 540.” Journal of American Studies 13, no. 3 (1979): 439-441.
[8]. Hadyniak, Kyle. “How Journalism Influenced American Public Opinion During the Vietnam War: A Case Study of the Battle of Ap Bac, The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, The Tet Offensive, and the My Lai Massacre.” (2015).
[9]. Coffey, Cindy. “Visuals of the Vietnam War.” (2012).
[10]. Topmiller, Robert J. The Lotus Unleashed: The Buddhist Peace Movement in South Vietnam, 1964-1966. University Press of Kentucky, 2006.
[11]. Mandelbaum, Michael. “Vietnam: The television war.” Daedalus (1982): 157-169.
[12]. Johannessen, Larry R. “18 Vietnam War Literature and the Arts.” AUTHOR Reid, Louann, Ed.; Golub, Jeffrey N., Ed. TITLE Reflective Activities: Helping Students Connect with Texts. Classroom Practices in Teaching English, Volume 30. INSTITUTION National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL.: 125.
[13]. Turner, Charles A. American Leadership and Decision-Making Failures in the Tet Offensive. ARMY COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLL FORT LEAVENWORTH KS, 2003.
[14]. National Museum of African American History and Culture. “Mourning the Death of Martin Luther King Jr..” National Museum of African American History and Culture, February 3, 2020. https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/mourning-death-martin-luther-king-jr.
[15]. Dubinins, Dmitrijs. “Clifford Case: The Unknown Maverick of the Vietnam War.” New Errands: The Undergraduate Journal of American Studies (2015).
[16]. Weaver, Gina Marie. Ideologies of forgetting: Rape in the Vietnam War. State University of New York Press, 2012.
[17]. Gelb, Betsy D. “More boycotts ahead? Some implications.” Business Horizons 38, no. 2 (1995): 70-77.
[18]. Freeman, Nick J. “United States’s economic sanctions against Vietnam: International business and development repercussions.” The Columbia Journal of World Business 28, no. 2 (1993): 12-22.
[19]. Cox, Ronald W. “The Military-Industrial complex and US military spending after 9/11.” Class, Race and Corporate Power 2, no. 2 (2014): 5.
[20]. Reppy, Judith. “A biomedical military–industrial complex?.” Technovation 28, no. 12 (2008): 802-811.
[21]. Andresen, Lee. Battle notes: music of the Vietnam War. Savage Press, 2003.
[22]. Meiliana, Sylvie. “THE AUTHORS’CRITICISM OF VIETNAM WAR SOCIAL EFFECTS IN FIVE SONG LYRICS.” Jurnal Ilmu dan Budaya 40, no. 50 (2016): 5759-5778.
[23]. Wilson, John. “Bugging Out: Protest Music, the Vietnam War and the American Counterculture.” PhD diss., Queen’s University (Canada), 2023.
[24]. Aagerstoun, Mary Jo, and Elissa Auther. “Considering feminist activist art.” NWSA Journal 19, no. 1 (2007): vii-xiv.
[25]. Griffin, Michael. “Media images of war.” Media, War & Conflict 3, no. 1 (2010): 7-41.
[26]. Cihankova, Hana. “Influence of Media on Vietnam War – Theses.cz.” INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON VIETNAM WAR, 2014. https://theses.cz/id/h0uo3z/Bachelor_Thesis_Hana_Cihankova.pdf.
[27]. Bell, Jordan B., and Ella C. Nye. “Specific symptoms predict suicidal ideation in Vietnam combat veterans with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder.” Military medicine 172, no. 11 (2007): 1144-1147.
[28]. Rosenheck, Robert, Peggy Gallup, and Catherine A. Leda. “Vietnam era and Vietnam combat veterans among the homeless.” American Journal of Public Health 81, no. 5 (1991): 643-646.
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