Ethical Issues and Practical Implication
Amaro et al. (2021) conducted a study to explore the impacts of a socially toxic environment and prejudice on patterns of substance use. The study suggested that addiction research should be systematic. These findings support the analysis of Vu et al. (2019). On the other hand, the Mereish et al. (2023) study evaluated the sexual and gender challenges for minority teens of colour. They suggested the need to consider the special needs associated with marginalized groups. Addiction research using an intersectional lens calls for customized interventions that address multiple factors related to substance use. To identify effective prevention and treatment of substance use disorders in manifold demographies, there is a need to conduct diverse addiction research.
In the context of the drug addiction population, diverse experiences play a critical role in addressing the relationship between stress and diversity. Policy transformation could have a significant impact on the affected communities. In addressing the effects of stress, legal aspects play a key role. Instead of focusing only on the psychosocial and physiological elements of managing drug addiction among diverse populations, a legal framework should be incorporated as well (Martin et al., 2021). On the other hand, several outpatient treatment inequalities at the ethnic level. The study found that drug use varies across ethnic groups, calling for national intervention requirements. These support the theme of stress among the population experiencing drug addiction problems since stressors and differences in diverse populations can affect treatment reactions.
Additionally, the intersection of stress, diversity, and drug addiction illustrates a relationship that impacts people in different identity dimensions. Vu et al. (2019) found that stressors from discrimination have an inverse impact across gender identities, leading to multiple coping mechanisms for the affected population through drug addiction. Moreover, there is a need to consider identities and experiences in relationships when addressing addiction and mental health interventions. Some of the social factors that contribute to substance use include discrimination, a toxic environment, and stressors. Some of the systematic situations, such as racism and discrimination, are identified as triggers for substance abuse and addiction across the diverse population. Therefore, to address socially toxic surroundings, there is a need for individually based and systematic interventions (Amaro et al., 2021). The Mereish et al. (2023) study focused on the youth of colour and their knowledge of anxieties relating to intersectional minorities. The study found that youth of colour suffer from multiple stressors, which calls for efficient family support. Therefore, supporting social networks and protective factors are crucial in addressing stress and drug use among affected individuals.
Due to the multiple studies, the demographics need to be clarified; the narrative employs youth as a generic term with no age description. Although this study began with over 600 articles to review and research due to strict criteria, they ended up with only 18. This number represents a small sample size of articles for creating criteria; although it is specific and directly addresses the subject, it also limits the data collected. However, there was a sample of data collected regarding stakeholder intervention, which allows for additional data to be presented and compared and allows for the study to be broadened in the future. Limitations include participant inequity; some had a small sample size, whereas others had a larger sample size. Creating a case study based on other studies should ensure that each sample size is comparable; therefore, a full representation of the problem is considered.
Lustick (2021) analyzed restorative practices and the mechanisms used to reproduce racial inequality in a year-long study of three schools: secondary, middle, and high schools. The focus was on one specific finding: that most restorative coordinators were white. The student population within the three schools studied was predominantly non-white, with mostly white staff. Although these schools focus on why most coordinators are white, it does not allow for any comparisons regarding the program results in schools with non-white staff and coordinators. These three schools also had extremely low suspension rates; therefore, having a school with a high suspension rate in the study to show comparisons could be helpful. Another limitation of this research is that it is hard to gain data on the disproportionality of discipline in schools with all students of color and all-white staff. To overcome this limitation, finding more students and staff in diverse schools to study would be best. Utilizing the self-determination theory in this study would be helpful, as personal bias is held by both the student and staff regarding discipline. They are finding research methods and results for overcoming those biases and being determined to do the right thing.
Factors Contributing to Recidivism
Research on the challenge of re-entry for women has been ongoing for several decades. Most of the studies focus on the unique issues relating to women’s re-entry process. According to Bloom et al. (2003), some of these individual factors include poverty, trauma, and lack of social support. However, only some studies discuss the role of family and re-entry program staff in helping women successfully re-integrate into the community. According to Stevens et al. (2003), the Women’s Prison Association (WPA) plays a key role in addressing challenges women face as they try to re-integrate into society. WPA, through Women’s Prison Association Residential Services, strives to provide safe and affordable houses for women in the re-entry process. It further offers other supporting services, for example, skills development and counselling. Providing secure homes for women in the transition process helps address some of the challenges which could make them get back to crime, reducing the possibility of recidivism.
Women Re-entry Assessment and Programming (WRAP) initiative is a community-based approach that helps solve some of women’s challenges in their transition process (Richie et al., 2011). Some of its services include case management, legal representation, and counselling. WRAP applies feminists’ ideology, which acknowledges the existence of inequalities in society which can force women to commit crimes. According to the National Institute of Justice (2017), there is a high risk of mortality and recidivism during the transition process. Further, Ruderman et al. (2016) argue that the absence of a supporting system can result in re-incarceration. Therefore, the individuals undergoing the re-entry process should be able to access basic resources for re-integration into the community.
Jian et al. (2018) study used Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological-developmental theory, which found that transgender women face difficulties during their re-entry process. They are placed in a toxic environment which adversely affects their mental state. The study, using quantitative and qualitative research methods, establishes the weaknesses and strengths of re-entry programs, which help minimize the recidivism rate. The study suggested that creating and implementing re-entry processes should include information and evidence from incarcerated transgender women studies to provide appropriate information for individuals in specific development stages.
Flores et al. (2020) conducted a qualitative study to establish a relationship between the abuse and incarceration of teen girls. The study collected primary data from the abused girls. Some of the questions which were paramount for the study included the form of abuse, the place of abuse, the helpful programs used, and the impact of abuse on the victims. According to Flores et al. (2020), the findings from the study helped in understanding the relationship between the effects of abuse and juvenile justice involvement. The study found a direct correlation between abuse within homes and other social institutions. It further found that there are limited resources from the community level to help the victims. The study was useful since it established the commonalities between abuse victims and gaps in communities for supporting and protecting youth.
About the Flores et al. (2020) study regarding the association between girls’ abuse and incarceration, Rosenthal et al. (2021) focused on anti-trans bullying in school and the association of adverse legal actions related to African American transgender individuals.
Further, Rosenthal et al. (2021) conducted research on anti-trans bullying in schools and adverse legal actions affecting African American transgender individuals. It was an improvement of the Flores et al. (2020) study. This quantitative study emphasized the school-to-prison pipeline (STPP) program and its mechanisms to identify what avenues within the school system increase the potential for students to trend toward criminal activity. Although there has been research on the STPP program, little research or policy has been focused on the African American transgender youth community. This study questions mistreatment in educational institutions and criminal facilities, focusing on the lack of or denial of adequate facilities, school victimization, and the lack of trust to seek help. The outcomes of this study revealed a connection between the experiences of anti-trans bullying and incarceration among African American transgender individuals. Also, this issue is not addressed in the STPP program. As this study was new to the subject, a quantitative approach was appropriate given the ability to collect initial data on gaps and allow for further studies in both quantitative and qualitative, with ethical provisions of age and sensitive populations recognized.
In the initial three-year period, the study sampled youth while entering a specific detention centre, identifying if this was their initial detention or if they were repeat offenders. Interviews were conducted while youth were detained and randomly re-interviewed approximately 11 times during their young adult life in their home or while re-incarcerated. The questions this study sought to answer were identifying incarceration rates as youth age and whether gender or racial and ethnic groups influence these rates. As a quantitative approach was appropriate to indicate raw data on youth being incarcerated, the qualitative data could have been more in-depth with questions regarding why, as youth age, they continue through life. As this study attempted to identify groups with the highest percentage of incarceration history only, a quantitative method would have been adequate. The findings of this study suggest alternatives to incarceration for youth; however, within the qualitative context, there was no data from interviews for other options.
Dawson-Edwards et al. (2020) addressed stakeholders’ perceptions of disproportionate minority contact (DMC) in the juvenile justice system. This research mainly utilizes quantitative data, with qualitative data having minimal availability. It uses two theories to support the data: the differential behavioural theory and the differential treatment theory. Dawson-Edwards et al. (2020) argues that the youth are misrepresented in the prison. Overall, they commit disproportionate crimes, leading to unequal treatment. Therefore, there needs to be more awareness about DMC and the significance of youth development. Finally, the existence of stakeholders’ prejudice about youth prevents their contribution to addressing issues relating to youth incarceration.
Re-entry Strategies
Staff Re-entry Programs
Some of the proposed re-entry approaches that effectively reduce the re-offending rate include vocational training and recruitment programs. According to Cohen et al. (2005), vocational and recruitment programs are vital in arming an individual with the needed skills to prosper in the working environment. They allow an individual to integrate into the community smoothly by finding a stable job. Another approach that can help individuals re-integrate into the community is the trauma-informed care theoretical framework (Bloom et al., 2003). It addresses the women’s mental health problems during the transition process. Further, it provides a supportive system and environment which results in quick recovery from psychological issues facing women after imprisonment.
Studies recommend the application of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) among individuals with a history of substance misuse. It is crucial in helping individuals struggling with the re-entry process due to imprisonment for substance abuse. CBT addresses triggers and relapses, which allow an individual to avoid further misuse of substances. Further, studies show that systematic problems can affect the re-entry process. Richie et al. (2011) argue that women of colour face recurring issues which adversely affect their reintegration process. Some of these problems include inadequate resources and weak support systems. Therefore, the study advocates for the use of gender and race-sensitive approaches in developing functional re-entry programs for minority groups.
Morrissey et al. (2007) found that most functional re-entry programs focus on community integration and the availability of resources for individuals after imprisonment. These programs should include aspects of social and environmental factors that will address mental health and re-incarceration issues. On the other hand, restorative justice can be used in the re-entry process for individuals in the criminal justice system. It focuses on the importance of promoting recovery and healing from the harm caused to the victim by the offender. It involves the inclusion of victims and offenders in the reintegration process.
Austin (2020) took a different approach, providing research on the effectiveness of restorative justice and library access. This study utilized a qualitative method supported by stakeholder theory. This means many minority communities and detention facilities do not have the same library resources or stakeholder support as other community libraries (Austin, 2020). Data from interviews in this study indicated that restorative justice practices are an effective way to shift culture and assist in developing positive relationships between staff and those they are attempting to help. Hence, it allows for better access to educational tools and a safe and positive learning environment. However, further research needs to be conducted on how restorative justice is currently utilized and how it can be implemented.
Reimer (2020) conducted a case study that utilized a mixed-methods approach focused on restorative justice and its contributions to school cohesiveness. Interviewing students allows them to share their lived experiences and perspectives. It can lead to interesting results as students have different viewpoints on peer interaction and cohesiveness. However, many students may only tell part of the story for fear of offending others or not sharing the same view. Therefore, the data may need to be more accurate. There were questionnaires combined with sharing circles to support the interviews. This study was part of a larger study of multi-national school studies. Therefore, these results can be compared to schools in different cultures. The limitations of the research involve an understanding of the school’s history. If the school is cohesive due to restorative justice, how and why did the transition occur? Incorporating more administrative feedback on getting where they were could overcome this limitation in the study. Future research should include how mindfulness plays a role in restorative justice. Theories of mindfulness and self-efficacy could help apply theory to this research while providing data that links self-efficacy in youth to adherence to school policy and social relationships.
Jäggi and Kliewer (2020) discussed the correctional education a juvenile receives while incarcerated, pointing to the importance of post-incarceration education within the school. They also discussed the importance of youth staying busy, focusing on self-care, and actively participating in school activities for at least the first six months after release. This critical aspect provides context for how meaningful relationships are to transitioning youth. This study utilized the mixed methods approach by combining data from shadowing juveniles for seven years, interviews, and a survey of the publicly available Pathways to Desistance project (Jäggi & Kliewer, 2020). Results of this study show a significant reduction in dropout rates, substance abuse, and aggressive behaviour when there is a sense of connection to their education and teachers. Future studies suggest the investigation of incarceration as a treatment option for juveniles to influence positive behaviours for a better transition into the community. Little is understood about how organized and bonded community programs affect transitional experiences.
O’Neill et al. (2020) focused on stakeholders and their awareness of the reintegration policies of juvenile justice agencies. They share the importance of multi-level agencies sharing resources and communication imperatives for the success of a youth’s re-entry. The authors compared stakeholders from two Westernized countries, looking at interagency collaboration and how each stakeholder supports life skills and team planning to ensure that each person in the re-entry process is fully supported for a successful transition. O’Neill et al. (2020) utilized a quantitative design by collecting data from a survey of stakeholders in two different countries. Findings suggest an adequate understanding of team planning and its processes; however, there was a lack of a clear understanding of support for youth during and after their transition back to their communities. This notes that although the processes are in place, there needs to be more oversight to capture whether these processes work. O’Neill et al. (2020) proposed a workaround approach for future studies, focusing on a service model where follow-up and interagency communication are primary.
Also, within the realm of stakeholder theory, it is imperative to research juvenile facilities about programs that can improve the outcomes of incarcerated youth. This study utilized a qualitative method aligned with stakeholder theory. Research provided data regarding the success of support programs to enhance awareness of the proper utilization of taxpayer dollars. This information was utilized to implement and oversee programs backed by evidence of effectiveness. As the government and stakeholders create and implement programs, oversight is essential to understanding the utilization and success of supporting transitioning youth. Additional research on this data is needed to ensure the proper utilization and distribution of government funding in all socioeconomic communities.
Being provided a good education while incarcerated is essential to the re-entry process of youth offenders. Mathur (2010) explains how instructional practices in correctional facilities lack proper depth for those with learning disabilities. In this context, quantitative data indicates that disability percentages for incarcerated youth range from 40 to 70 per cent (Mathur, 2020). Utilizing Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory, it is suggested that those youth involved in a well-implemented educational program with a high success rate foster other youth to desire that same success. Mathur (2010) shared that many youths have negative school experiences before incarceration. Therefore, if administrators and educators become engaged in enhancing the social-emotional aspect of education and creating positive student-teacher and student-student relationships, there will be a more positive learning environment. This positive change will also assist a youth’s transition during re-entry, allowing them to be more accepting of social bonds in post-incarceration education. Future research suggested by Mathur (2010) includes research into additional professional development focused on incarcerated youth as well as studies on culture change from custodial to educational settings.
Family Re-entry Programs
Additionally, social support is critical for successful re-entry. Studies have shown that social support from friends and families can protect against reconviction. Lack of social support can result in re-offending, which will eventually lead to re-incarceration. Further, Stevens et al. (2003) acknowledge the role of housing in promoting successful re-entry. The absence of safe and affordable housing can lead to other difficulties, such as unemployment and a lack of basic resources, increasing the possibility of recidivism. Therefore, providing safe and affordable homes for the individuals undergoing the re-entry process is essential. The role of a parent is vital to understanding youth incarceration. Questions that arise from this study are about the relationship between African American fathers and their relationship with their children and society. This qualitative study attempted to address the underlying issues of re-entry and relationships. Ecological theory suggests a connection between micro and macro systems; however, this study needed more past research, and many fathers were hesitant to interview.
Stark et al. (2009) found in their study that family-focused interventions effectively help in supporting a successful re-entry process, especially for individuals struggling with drug abuse issues. It involves families working closely with their relatively undergoing re-entry process to address issues such as relapses and triggers that relate to drug abuse. It also helps provide supportive resources to individuals transitioning to community life after imprisonment. Jacobsen (2019) shared a qualitative study utilizing life-course theory, which focuses on past parental incarceration as a precursor to behavioural problems in youth, resulting in formal punishment. As youth work through life’s transitions and changes, their ability to form social bonds decreases if they lack family support. Jacobsen (2019) proposes meaningful links between paternal incarceration, behavioural problems, and social bonding. Further studies should also compare how different types of early childhood punishment due to behavioural issues can result in different outcomes.
Turney and Halpern-Meekin (2021) shared a quantitative study on the relationship between incarceration and relationship churning. This study focused on the effects of imprisonment and unstable relationships among mothers. This association questioned whether relationship churning was associated with further incarceration for fathers and instability in family life. Understanding youth’s expression and accepting their individuality is vital to supporting their future. Robinson’s (2020) qualitative study focused on the negative relationship between policing and hyperincarceration, hindering the ability of LGBTQ youth to express themselves. Robinson (2020) focused on policing and LGBTQ homeless youth in this qualitative study. The study describes how normative policing practices focus on gender, sexuality, and non-heterosexuality, with punishment before and after incarceration. Based on interviews and observations of LGBTQ youth while incarcerated, the study showed that segregation based on their known gender is prevalent while placing regulations on their identity, causing mental health issues. Further studies should focus on comparing both policing practices through interviews and observations to understand the policy behind the disproportionate arrest of LGBTQ people of colour. A limitation of the study was the lack of interviews with law enforcement; qualitative analysis could help obtain a comparison of the results of LGBTQ interactions with law enforcement compared to those of non-LGBTQ individuals.
Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, Mowen and Fisher (2021) examined how the family system’s role affects re-entry. The article used the differential coercion and social support theory, which outlines the relationship between coercion and crime, sharing that family dynamics may either promote or deter preparation among youth trying to reenter the family and community system. Mowen and Fisher (2021) argued that the most critical resource for youth as they transition is family and indicated that family conflict upon re-entry can lead to recidivism and re-incarceration. Unfortunately, gaps in the literature regarding the link between family dynamics and recidivism exist; therefore, this issue needs to be addressed in policy for prevention. However, this study used information from post-incarceration interviews and data from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2018c) to share research regarding the importance of maintaining the role of family engagement in the juvenile justice system. Mowen and Fisher (2021) shared that family support studies do not consider the presence of family conflict. These factors in the juvenile justice system’s rehabilitation, transition, and violence prevention should be researched separately. Hence, creating a policy that focuses on the family system in incremental pieces allows practitioners and community advocates to dig deeper for resources and assistance in the incarcerated youth’s reintegration process.
Garbarino et al. (2020) shifted the focus of family influence on youth to environmental impact by utilizing Brofenbrenner’s (1977) social-ecological systems theory. As youth transition from incarceration to society and family, they significantly shift in their environment. Garbarino et al. (2020) share that genes and one’s environment can create social behaviours that inhibit growth and adaptation or foster anti-social and destructive behaviours. Therefore, looking at youth re-entry through many different lenses is essential. Taking a social-ecological perspective can help stakeholders approach each youth transition with a unique perspective and resources that apply to that situation.
Siennick and Widdowson (2017) took a financial independence focus to share the relationship between young adults who reenter with financial independence from their parents and those who do not. In this study, developmental theory proves that young adults go through a developmental transition to adulthood, where they need independence. Ensuring that one has been adequately educated in daily life skills such as financial management is essential. When youth are incarcerated, their freedoms and autonomy are taken. Therefore, using developmental theory coupled with better educational settings can assist in the youth-to-adult transition post-incarceration. Further research is needed to identify the gaps in financial education in correctional facilities.
Conclusion
Several studies have been used in this literature review to determine the role of staff and family members in promoting re-entry programs. Several ethical implications, which include systematic issues, stress and diversity, a legal framework, and inadequate research, are addressed in the literature review. There is a call for policy transformation to address legal frameworks and systematic issues. On the other hand, several risk factors contributing to recidivism are addressed in the studies. They include psychological and socioeconomic factors such as poverty, trauma, inadequate social support, unsafe housing, unemployment, identity crises, victimization, and systematic issues. Further, strategies that can be used to promote the re-entry process are discussed in the studies, and they include vocational training, CBT, restorative justice, correctional education, and the sharing of resources for staff re-entry programs. On the other hand, family re-entry strategies include continued family support, parental guidance, and financial independence.
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