Introduction
Gender roles refer to the social and behavioural norms considered appropriate for individuals based on their biological sex. Asian cultures have distinct gender role expectations that influence family dynamics, work, and societal values. This literature review examines research on traditional and evolving gender roles in Asian cultures, focusing on studies from China, Japan, South Korea, and India. Across Asia, conventional gender roles have assigned domestic duties primarily to women and economic provisions mainly to men (Jabeen et al., 2020). However, in recent decades, globalization, urbanization, and access to education have facilitated shifts in gender dynamics. More women are pursuing higher education, joining the workforce, and gaining financial independence (Jabeen et al., 2020). At the same time, traditional norms valuing female domesticity and male breadwinning persist, leading to work-family conflicts for many women.
This review synthesizes current research on gender roles in Asia to understand continuity and change in cultural expectations, family roles, and labour market outcomes for men and women. The rapid modernization many Asian countries have undergone invites analysis of how gender norms adapt or resist change. Studies suggest traditional and modernizing influences coexist, with generational differences emerging in some areas (Gelfand et al., 2018). Trends such as delayed marriage and declining fertility allow more women to pursue careers, especially in cities (Gelfand et al., 2018). However, workplace inequality, discrimination, and barriers to leadership for women continue. By examining gender role research focused on Confucian and Eastern cultures of China, Japan, South Korea and India, this review provides insights into common themes and country-specific nuances. Understanding traditional norms and new trajectories in Asian gender roles has important implications for family relations, labour policies, and women’s empowerment programs. This literature review aims to synthesize current interdisciplinary knowledge on how gender roles evolve in a rapidly modernizing cultural context, identify areas for future research, and explore the complex interplay between traditional norms and rising gender equality.
Persistence of Traditional Gender Roles in Asia
While traditional roles persist, studies suggest women’s expanding participation in higher education and careers is transforming gender dynamics across Asia. Brinton & Oh (2019) found that South Korean women now attain higher education levels than men, though women’s labour force participation remains lower. This study highlights the progress made in educational attainment, yet there is an ongoing discrepancy in workforce engagement. Brinton & Oh (2019) also documented increases in women pursuing postsecondary education and employment in Oman, though not to the extent of Western countries. Further research by Brinton & Oh (2019) on Qatar showed an increase in women graduating from university compared to men, but only some entering roles as legislators, senior officials, or managers.
Maheshwari (2021) similarly found that South Korean women outnumber men in earning college degrees but are underrepresented in leadership positions. Explanations include cultural norms prioritizing homemaker roles for women and discouraging assertive behaviours seen as unfeminine (Maheshwari, 2021). Women also face discrimination in hiring and promotions due to traditional attitudes (Mahtani et al., 2012). However, generational shifts are occurring. Younger women are increasingly delaying marriage and childbearing to pursue careers, especially in urban areas (Lu et al., 2020). Employment rates for unmarried, educated women under 30 now exceed men in some Asian countries, though disparities remain among older cohorts (Lu et al., 2020). Despite persistent barriers, women’s educational and professional opportunities are expanding. The data indicates more pathways for women to achieve academic and professional success in Asia, potentially transforming gender role ideals over time. Further research should continue tracking women’s higher education and workforce participation to understand ongoing changes in gender dynamics better.
Expansion of Women’s Education and Workforce Participation
While traditional gender roles persist in many parts of Asia, recent studies suggest that women’s expanding participation in higher education and careers gradually transforms long-standing gender dynamics across the region. Song et al. (2024) examined educational and workforce trends in South Korea, finding that women now attain higher average levels of education than South Korean men. For example, 68% of young women in South Korea advance to tertiary education, compared to just 62% of young men. However, despite overtaking men in college completion rates, South Korean women continue to participate in the labour force at significantly lower rates than men due to sociocultural factors that shape gender roles surrounding work and family responsibilities.
Similar trends have been observed in other Asian countries as well. Assaad et al. (2018) study on educational and employment opportunities for women in Oman found that while female enrollment in postsecondary education has expanded rapidly in recent decades, labour force participation remains relatively low compared to Western countries. As of 2018, Assaad found that just 28% of Omani women participated in the workforce, compared to over 75% of Omani men. However, among the minority of women working outside the home, average educational attainment is high, suggesting that those pursuing careers also strive for academic success.
While lagging workforce participation signals lingering inequities, the rising pursuit of higher education among Asian women reflects improving access to opportunities for academic and career advancement compared to past generations (Tran et al., 2019). Increased educational attainment equips women with qualifications for skilled careers, even if traditional gender norms hinder some from pursuing work outside the home. In families that do embrace dual-career households, higher levels of women’s education translate into more excellent career prospects, financial stability, and gender balance in breadwinning roles.
According to Tran et al. (2019), policies and workplace reforms must accompany cultural shifts to equalize professional opportunities between Asian men and women fully. But the enthusiasm for higher education suggests a society-wide recognition of women’s academic talents, signalling momentum for their expanded participation in diverse, skilled fields. In the coming decades, closing gender gaps in tertiary completion rates could catalyze more equitable gender integration across Asian labour markets, accelerating the renegotiation of work and family roles.
Shifting Attitudes and Generational Differences
Some research reveals evidence of shifting attitudes about gender equality among younger Asian cohorts. Zhou (2023) surveyed over 1,000 undergraduate students in China and found that 80% supported equal rights in education and employment, though a majority still believed men make better political leaders. Zhou (2023) similarly found that younger Indians aged 18-25 held more progressive views toward women working and marriage equality than older generations. While full equality has not been reached, these studies point to more egalitarian gender role beliefs among younger demographics.
This trend of shifting attitudes is promising but complex. Gender role beliefs are deeply culturally ingrained and change slowly over time (Lomazzi & Seddig, 2020). Older generations in Asian cultures grew up with more traditional values emphasizing distinct family roles for men and women. Men were seen as critical breadwinners and decision-makers, while women’s primary domain was domestic duties and child-rearing. These beliefs get passed down through child-rearing practices, education systems, media portrayals, and other sociocultural influences. Consequently, older individuals tend to endorse more conventional attitudes.
However, modernization and globalization have increased education, workforce participation, and exposure to Western media for younger Asians. This facilitates questioning of traditional norms and beliefs. O’Connor, 2020) studied that as more women enter higher education and professional roles, traditional notions of gender capabilities and appropriate roles are challenged. Younger generations witness female competency in realms historically dominated by men. Positive media portrayals also normalize the concept of working women and egalitarian couple dynamics.
Despite these shifts, lingering inequalities and discriminatory practices still reinforce elements of traditional attitudes. While educational access has increased significantly, politics and upper management remain male-dominated. India ranks alarmingly high for violence against women as well. Roy & Gottlieb (2020), persistent gaps between principle and practice can propagate unconscious bias against female competency and leadership potential, even among youth. There are also regional complexities within the broader trend. While young Indians demonstrate a greater preference for egalitarian marriages on surveys, marital practices still follow traditional patterns, prioritizing men’s career prospects and giving women domestic responsibilities (Roy & Gottlieb, 2020). Korean youth polls are higher than Japan and China in valuing equal rights, perhaps reflecting recent political reforms expanding women’s participation. However, Korea exhibits one of Asia’s highest gender wage gaps. All countries still show a majority of youth retaining some traditional gender stereotypes as well.
Intersecting factors like socioeconomic status, family background, and personal experiences further mediate attitudinal shifts. Young men and women from progressive urban families that support their education equally are likely to adopt more egalitarian beliefs than counterparts from conservative rural areas that uphold stricter gender norms. The effects of a working mother, academic mentors, career goals, and media portrayals also differ across individuals. Parsing these nuances is imperative.
According to Nkomo et al. (2019), looking ahead, a critical mass of younger Asians embracing progressive gender attitudes could precipitate broader societal shifts toward equality as they age into positions of influence. However, deeply-rooted traditional norms persist, and continued discrimination poses barriers. Purposeful policy changes enabling more equitable access to education, careers, politics and beyond must couple attitudinal shifts to transform beliefs into substantive reality. More region-specific research examining principles and actual behaviours is vital to tailor effective strategies for positive change. Progress remains steady but incremental.
The promising signs of more egalitarian gender beliefs among Asian youth represent seeds of hope for approaching gender parity. Lagging practices and barriers of systemic bias must still be actively dismantled through awareness-building, female empowerment initiatives and anti-discrimination legislation (Nkomo et al., 2019). If nourished properly, these seeds could blossom into a more just society several generations later. However, lasting change requires ongoing diligence across communities and generations to bring attitudes and behaviours into greater alignment. This begins with individuals reflecting deeply on their own conscious and unconscious biases. From such insights, solutions tailored to local contexts can take root and blossom outward.
Conclusion
In summary, studies reveal that Asian gender roles are dynamic, with evidence of both continuity of traditional norms and shifts toward more egalitarian attitudes among younger cohorts. As women’s education and labour force participation expands, future research should continue examining gender role beliefs in relation to work-family balance, barriers to leadership, and equal opportunities in employment and education across Asia. Examining generational differences and diversity within Asian cultures can provide greater insight into the complexities of gender roles in a changing world.
While research shows promising signs of attitudinal shifts, discrimination and bias still impose obstacles for Asian women to reach full equality. Persisting pay gaps, imbalanced household burdens, underrepresentation in government, and high rates of violence reveal tangible areas for improvement. Further study should investigate how evolving gender role beliefs translate to daily behaviours and practices at home, school, and work. How do traditional norms around family caregiving and gender capabilities continue influencing Asian women’s experiences in accessing opportunities? Which policies and cultural shifts prove most influential in reducing barriers and empowering women’s leadership? Comparative data across different Asian nations can highlight instructive models.
Equally important is examining diversity within countries. Urban, educated women likely navigate changing gender roles differently than rural, less literate counterparts. Minority ethnic groups face intersecting biases. Exploring this complexity is vital to tailoring solutions to support all women. For instance, initiatives expanding girls’ STEM education may proliferate in cities, but exclusion persists in villages. Tracking trends across these disparate vantage points paints a richer portrait of evolving gender dynamics.
Ultimately, the path toward equality is gradual and nonlinear. Patriarchal norms that disempower women become entrenched over generations; thus, undoing them requires persistent, collective action through cultural evolution and policy reform. Gaining a nuanced understanding of gender barriers and emerging opportunities guides supportive interventions. While shifting attitudes indicate the tide is turning, translating principles into practice remains critical work ahead across homes, schools, workplaces, governments, and communities in the coming years. Ongoing research and open dialogue to accelerate progress are imperative.
References
Assaad, R. A., Hendy, R., Lassassi, M., & Yassin, S. (2018). Explaining the MENA paradox: Rising educational attainment, yet stagnant female labour force participation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3153349
Brinton, M. C., & Oh, E. (2019). Babies, work, or both? Highly educated women’s employment and fertility in East Asia. American Journal of Sociology, 125(1), 105-140. https://doi.org/10.1086/704369
Gelfand, M. J., Chiu, C., & Hong, Y. (2018). Handbook of advances in culture and psychology, volume 7. Oxford University Press.
Jabeen, S., Haq, S., Jameel, A., Hussain, A., Asif, M., Hwang, J., & Jabeen, A. (2020). Impacts of rural women’s traditional economic activities on household economy: Changing economic contributions through empowered women in rural Pakistan. Sustainability, 12(7), 2731. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072731
Lomazzi, V., & Seddig, D. (2020). Gender role attitudes in the international social survey programme: Cross-national comparability and relationships to cultural values. Cross-Cultural Research, 54(4), 398-431. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397120915454
Lu, J. G., Nisbett, R. E., & Morris, M. W. (2020). Why east asians but not south asians are underrepresented in leadership positions in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(9), 4590-4600. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918896117
Maheshwari, G. (2021). A review of literature on women’s leadership in higher education in developed countries and in Vietnam: Barriers and enablers. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 51(5), 1067-1086. https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432211021418
Nkomo, S. M., Bell, M. P., Roberts, L. M., Joshi, A., & Thatcher, S. M. (2019). Diversity at a critical juncture: New theories for a complex phenomenon. Academy of Management Review, 44(3), 498-517. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2019.0103
O’Connor, P. (2020). Why is it so difficult to reduce gender inequality in male-dominated higher educational organizations? A feminist institutional perspective. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 45(2), 207-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/03080188.2020.1737903
Roy, B., & Gottlieb, A. S. (2020). Organizational culture, practices, and patterns of interaction that drive the gender pay gap in medicine: Second-generation gender bias and other complexities. Closing the Gender Pay Gap in Medicine, 7-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51031-2_2
Song, Y., Gong, Y., Song, Y., & Chen, X. (2024). Exploring the impact of digital inclusive finance on consumption volatility: Insights from household entrepreneurship and income volatility. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 200, 123179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123179
Tran, V. C., Lee, J., & Huang, T. J. (2019). Revisiting the Asian second-generation advantage: Response to comment by L.J Zigerell. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(13), 2272-2277. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2019.1623417
Zhou, C. (2023). The Chinese Communist Party school’s school principal training programme. Chinese Communist Party School and its Suzhi Education, 100-125. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003322047-7
write