Urbanization has led to significant increases in living standards, and the goal of becoming carbon neutral has boosted demand for electric cars. Due to their dependability, capacity for wear and tear resistance, and power density, lithium-ion batteries have been considered the best option for new electric vehicles (Wu et al., 2022). Lithium-ion batteries are the most common rechargeable batteries used in the laptop, cell phone, electrical storage, and electric vehicle industries. The fact that electric vehicles have emerged as the most practical alternatives to combustion engines is not surprising. A descriptive analysis of “Lithium Manganese Oxide” batteries will be included in this study. The study includes information on components, electrical circuitry, and the product’s life cycle. Discussed are the dimensions of a sustainable industrial system and the approaches the business must take to construct the system.
Material Description
Parts of Battery Cells
Significant parts of it include:
Cathode: Oxidized is preferred since it is more stable than elemental form; “lithium manganese dioxide” is the substance employed for the “cathode.” Lithium ions make up the “active material” in the cathode, together with a conductivity-boosting “additive” and a “binder” to appropriately attach the cathode to the substrate. “Aluminum” is the substance employed as a substrate.
Anode: “Graphite” is the substance utilized as the “anode.” The anode’s role is to encourage ion absorption in the cathode and ion movement in the electrolyte. Additionally, it guarantees the electrical stream in the external circuit simultaneously.
Separator: The part is essential in separating the anode and cathode while thwarting any unswerving electron flow. “Polyethene” and “Polypropylene” are the separator materials.
Electrolyte: The “organic liquid solvent” that dissolves the “lithium salts” is included in the electrolytic solution and additions for specific functions.
Electronic Circuitry
Lithium-ion batteries offer the highest “energy density” among battery types, making them the ideal choice for everything from computers to electric cars. To prevent any harm, “Battery Management Systems” keep an eye on how well the batteries operate within a defined “safe operating area (SOA).” Current and Voltage: The general electrical SOA for lithium-ion batteries is shown in Figure 1. The manufacturer specifies the maximum limits for charging and discharging. The discharge end usually is between 2.8 and 3.0. While the peak release level for current is 8A, the maximum charging current is up to 15A.
Fig 1 Shows “BMS SOA of current-voltage for Lithium Ion Batteries”
Miscellaneous:
For Lithium Magnesium batteries, liquid cooling solutions are recommended over air cooling systems. Due to the drawbacks of a water-cooling plate, a heat pipe was integrated with the coolant system (Mei et al., 2020). Due to its corrosion resistance, weldability, solderability, strength, and conductivity, nickel is mainly utilized as a connector metal. The primary function of a battery housing structure is to ensure that the cells are entirely protected, ensuring their integrity (Düser & Schramm, 2019). Due to the high strength material and gauge reduction capabilities of MC212 aluminum alloy cases, they are highly selected for housing lithium-ion batteries in automobiles.
Alternatives
The stable characteristics, low cost, and enhanced capacity for storing and discharging lithium ions are advantages of employing graphite. Despite these advantages, silicon outperforms graphite regarding operational capacity at lower potentials (Chadha et al., 2022). Regarding managing thermal dissipation and achieving optimal performance, “clad metals” are a good substitute for nickel.
Lifecycle of the Product
Any battery must pass through several steps of a complex chain before becoming a finished item. The following describes the stages in a lithium-magnesium battery’s life cycle. For every stage, the environmental effects are also mentioned.
Stage 1: Development
The development resources needed to construct the four main components, cathode, anode, separator, and electrolyte, can be found in various low-precipitation areas. The primary components have already been covered in prior discussions. China is where lithium battery resources are found and produced in the most significant quantities, followed by Korea and Japan. The continents of North America and Europe have increased their investments throughout time as a priority to be listed among the battery production regions. As a result, Hungary and the United States of America have contributed significantly. Due to the water problem, mining has become a primary industry that is “frowned upon” by environmentalists and concerned citizens. Human rights and ethical considerations come first during the sourcing process.
The Figure below shows a list of significant countries manufacturing Lithium Cells.
Stage 2: Usage
The battery is integrated with the particular system it is intended for once the resources have been harvested, and the finished product has been made. The battery’s specifications, including its lifespan, age, and number of charging and discharging cycles, are all mentioned. Stressful usage may harm the device’s general characteristics and decrease the battery’s overall effectiveness. The careless dumping of the batteries in landfills and water at this point contributes to the environmental factors. When toxic substances like nickel and cobalt decompose, they can pollute groundwater, a significant worry for humans and hazardous to aquatic life. Due to the batteries’ combustible components, landfill fires produce much toxic smoke. Battery explosions could result from the loss of electrolytes, another hazardous pollution source.
Stage 3: Second Life
The battery has yet to become useless after serving its primary purpose, and its efficiency starts to decline. Giving a battery a second chance guarantees its reuse for fixed or mobile applications like power generation or renewable energy production. Depending on the battery’s reduced efficiency, the second life enables it to be reused and used in different energy storage services. The overall cost of electric vehicles decreases when the expense of trash disposal is converted into residual cost. Since less waste ends up in landfills and fewer resources are depleted, this has a good impact on the environment.
Stage 4: Recycle
Given the limited availability of the pricey metals used in battery components like nickel and cobalt, recycling batteries is justifiable (Engel et al., 2019). Since more and more lithium-ion batteries are being used, recycling rates must rise to keep the environment clean. China now holds the top spot in the world for EV recycling capacity, and by 2030, the battery recycling industry is expected to reach a projected value of about $22.8 billion (Alves, 2023). Pyrometallurgy usually involves burning the battery to eliminate plastic and organic materials. Hydrometallurgy involves soaking the batteries in acids for mechanical crushing and melting the metal, and it is considered one of the best recycling techniques. Even though this stage is the most environmentally beneficial, the pyrometallurgical process uses photochemicals that cause the ozone layer to thin and the planet to warm.
The Figure above shows the Lithium-Magnesium Battery Life Cycle Stages
Future Industrial Systems that are Sustainable
This part contains advances in battery technology that incorporate sustainable practices at various life cycle phases.
- Electronically powered battery sensors are crucial for providing the user with up-to-date battery information, such as temperature readings, charging/discharging currents, and voltages. By providing fast access to a wealth of mechanical, chemical, and thermal data, combining battery sensing with fiber optics techniques is a viable strategy for fostering change (Huang et al., 2022).
- The FDA241 is a crucial measure to reduce the risk of accidents in storage facilities. The primary role of FDA241 is to track the electrolyte vapor at an early stage and activate the Sinorix N2. This fire suppression system help prevent fire outbreak and help the fire brigade with enough time to react.
- Zinc-ion batteries are the best alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, which have various supply chain bottlenecks. These batteries are the best alternatives because they have dominated the market as a source for power grids and electric vehicles. Zinc-ion batteries are the best alternatives for their energy density and compatibility. Lithium-ion battery producers face strict market demand as the legislation of environmentally friendly practices takes effect.
System Sustainability Strategy
- Future industrial systems’ electrode-sensing processes will be based on the methods used for load-bearing constructions like bridges and railroads. The Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors will be combined with the electrode’s solid material. This will allow the ability to relate measurements like strain, hydraulic pressure, and temperature more efficiently. It is helpful to integrate FBG sensors due to their smaller size, chemical stability, and electromagnetic insulation.
The Figure above shows Lithium-ion battery integration with FBG.”
- The investigation of the range of “lithium-magnesium” batteries has been primarily motivated by the fantastic electrochemical concepts of “Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries (RMBs)” (Zhang et al., 2022). The zinc idea, however, has tremendous sustainability potential. The technological issue of replacing zinc with lithium-ion has been resolved through electrolyte hydration. The control factor that considers water an electrolyte makes lithium-based construction more expensive. In contrast, the sustainable approach will be built on the production of zinc-ion batteries using electrolytes made of water. “Zn” anode should be credited for the long-term cycle power of more than 4,000 h (Han et al., 2021). The cost-effective and higher energy density method will be advantageous for the next ten years.
The Figure above shows a comparison of lithium-ion with other metals with zinc-ion.
- The preferred technique of implementing liquid cooling in the present day is using cooling plates made with a heat pipe, as was covered in the section about why liquid cooling is preferred over passive cooling in the previous section. Compared to heat pipes, thermosyphon cooling systems offer substantially higher heat transfer capacity, less hardware setup, and more precise temperature control. Therefore, considering thermosyphon cooling systems is required for the long-term strategy.
The Figure above shows Thermosyphon Cooling Systems, Source enggstudy.com.
- BMS monitoring is a significant element of metrics like “State of Charge” (SOC). Simulink modeling is a crucial method for integrating BMS and monitoring systems. Simulink also performs modeling, parameterization, and the creation of algorithms and logic based on closed-loop control and monitoring. With the recent announcement of a “battery swapping policy” and the government’s increased demand for electric vehicles, BMS systems are more likely to develop. This suggests that money spent on effective BMS collaborations will soon pay off.
The above Figure shows the “BMS industry forecast.”
Conclusion
The cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator chemicals, which are the essential components of “Lithium Manganese Dioxide” batteries, are addressed. The battery may be charged to a maximum voltage of 4.2V and a maximum current of 15A. “Clad metals” work well as battery connectors in place of nickel. As the product’s primary developer, China must conform to moral principles and environmental concerns, including “mining” and “groundwater poisoning.” Recycling and virtual reality are two activities that significantly advance waste management techniques and lessen inadvertent harm. Future sustainable systems will encompass sophisticated sensors, improved storage facilities, and cutting-edge BMS and cooling methods. Investments in “Simulink” technology, “Thermosyphon” cooling systems, and “Fiber Bragg Grating” sensors are among the tactics that must be modified for a ten-year sustainable strategy. In 2020, the UK produced more electricity from renewable sources than from fossil fuels, actively advancing the Circular Economy.
References
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Engel, H., Hertzke, P., & Siccardo, G. (2019). Second-life EV batteries: The newest value pool in energy storage. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/second-life-ev-batteries-the-newest-value-pool-in-energy-storage
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Zhang, H., Qiao, L., & Armand, M. (2022). Organic Electrolyte Design for Rechargeable Batteries: From Lithium to Magnesium. Angewandte Chemie, 61(52). https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202214054
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