Prescription painkillers, benzodiazepines, caffeine, and nicotine rank prominently among the most commonly abused substances globally, with far-reaching psychological, behavioral, physical, and social effects on the users and society. The drugs contain psychoactive components, which affect the user’s brain functions, and trigger changes in behaviors, awareness, mood, feelings, and thoughts. For instance, the misuse of such prescription analgesic drugs as opioids, which are integral in pain management, activates the brain’s reward centers, triggers the release of endorphins, and amplifies feelings of pleasure. When the temporal feelings subside, the user irresistibly and compulsively seeks to reignite the good feelings, marking the initial milestone toward addiction. Similarly, benzodiazepines, a class of prescription depressants, are widely misused due to their ability to initiate euphoric feelings, calming effects, excitement, and happiness. Indeed, the misuse of these substances has detrimental short- and long-term health implications for the use and society. Although prescription painkillers, benzodiazepines, caffeine, and nicotine are highly addictive, substance abuse counselors provide essential support and treatment interventions to help the users recover from addiction, overcome withdrawal symptoms, and improve their overall health.
Prescription Painkillers
Prescription painkillers, also known as opioid analgesics, are a category of drugs prescribed medically by a healthcare practitioner for pain management. Despite their integral role in enhancing patient comfort and reducing chronic pain, these medications are among the most widely abused globally, contributing to an estimated 75% of all drug overdose-related fatalities in 2017 (Kravitz-Wirtz et al., 2020). Notably, this is due to their ability to overstimulate the brain’s reward circuitry system by imitating the natural chemical messengers that initiate amplified feelings of pleasure.
Psychoactive Substance Toxicity, Intoxication, and Withdrawal Symptoms
Prescription painkillers are highly addictive substances, especially when used for long periods or without following the prescribed terms. Volkow et al. (2018) contend that painkillers are among the most helpful and highly addictive medications. Notably, these substances can trigger addiction and dependence even from regular usage as prescribed by doctors. Further, these medications contain various chemical compounds, which initiate physical and mental impairment in the user. They cause changes in behavior, thoughts, moods, and awareness, giving the users some euphoric, increased energy, and tranquilizing effects.
The toxicity of prescription painkillers is manifested in the user’s presentations of such symptoms as hallucinations, intractable nausea, delirium, increased energy, somnolence, myoclonic jerks, and hyperalgesia. The intoxication of these substances occurs from excessive usage or overdose, combined consumption with other drugs, prolonged utilization, and ingestion through medically unproven ways. The withdrawal symptoms of prescription painkillers include suicidal thoughts, uncontrolled pain, anxiety, restlessness, nausea, and inability to sleep.
Characteristics of Social Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Disconnection from social institutions, older age, involvement in the criminal justice system, and socioeconomic disadvantage are among the characteristic of the social use of prescription painkillers. Jalali et al. (2020) note that the crisis of prescription painkillers is multifaceted. For instance, accessibility to opioids, untreated psychiatric conditions, adverse early childhood experiences, family history, and such community-level factors as workplace environment increase the risk of abuse and dependence.
Psychopharmacological Effects of Prescription Painkillers
Prescription painkillers have various pharmacological effects, including nausea, sedation, somnolence, euphoria, tolerance, drowsiness, myoclonic jerks, and hyperalgesia. Additionally, users may experience dizziness, persistent headaches, suicidal thoughts, hallucinations, and respiratory depression. While these chemical reactions are initially intended to help alleviate pain, the regular usage, misuse, or prolonged usage of prescription painkillers aggravate the detrimental effects of the drugs.
How a Counselor Could Intervene
Substance use counselors provide essential services and support to people with addiction and withdrawal symptoms. For instance, through individualized treatments, counselors can put the client on a detoxification program to help them overcome addiction and cope with the withdrawal symptoms.
Caffeine and Nicotine
Psychoactive Substance Toxicity, Intoxication, and Withdrawal Symptoms
Caffeine and nicotine are the most used psychoactive substances globally and contain chemicals that affect the brain’s functionality. Notably, the addictive chemical compounds impact cognition and behavior by affecting how the brain works, particularly by altering its reward pathways, ultimately triggering addiction. For instance, Ogbolu et al. (2021) note that these substances trigger physiological and psychological stimulation of the brain’s pleasure centers and reward system. Notably, caffeine and nicotine intoxication cause physiological arousal, excessive alertness, lethargy, nausea, increased blood pleasure, insomnia, and a faster heartbeat. The withdrawal symptoms include anxiety, difficulties in concentration, restlessness, irritability, depression, insomnia, and nicotine and caffeine cravings.
Characteristics of Social Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Consumption of caffeine and nicotine is socially acceptable, and their usage is widely perceived to enhance wakefulness, improve mood, alleviate stress, and promote socialization. This implies that the risk factors for caffeine and nicotine usage are multifaceted and encompass personal, social, gender, and racial aspects (Mahoney et al., 2019). Additionally, widespread social acceptability increases the risk of abuse and subsequent tolerance dependence.
Psychopharmacological Effects of Nicotine and Caffeine
Nicotine triggers its psychostimulant effects by blocking the dopamine uptake in the brain and increasing its synaptic release. Further, as a sympathomimetic substance, nicotine increases cardiac contractility and heart rate, increases blood pressure transiently, and causes the constriction of coronary and cutaneous blood vessels. Caffeine functions through the inhibition of adenosine, which causes an increase in the activity of the dopaminergic system, ultimately engender poor impulse control, and influences the user to engage in pleasure-seeking behaviors. Nicotine and caffeine intoxication leads to fatigue, nausea, insomnia, stomach irritation, nervousness, and irritability. Discontinuation of caffeine and nicotine occasions such withdrawal symptoms as difficulties in concentration, restlessness, muscle twitching, and cravings.
How a Counselor Could Intervene
Substance use counselors can help people with nicotine and caffeine to overcome their dependence, reduce the motivation to consume the drugs, and successfully deal with the resultant withdrawal symptoms. For instance, these counselors can support their clients to adopt healthy alternatives and embrace caffeine and nicotine replacements through therapeutic interventions that help minimize cravings and wean the individuals off the substances.
Benzodiazepines
Psychoactive Substance Toxicity, Intoxication, and Withdrawal Symptoms
Benzodiazepines are depressants that act on the central nervous system to trigger sedation, muscle relaxation, alleviate seizures, and reduce anxiety levels. However, they are widely misused by people due to their ability to generate sedation, hypnosis, tranquilizing effect, and euphoria. Notably, benzodiazepines are highly addictive and trigger psychological, physiological, and physical effects due to their chemical compounds. Individuals with benzodiazepine toxicity often present with symptoms of depression in the central nervous system, characterized by mild drowsiness and coma-like stuporous condition (Zamani, Hassanian-Moghaddam, and Zamani, 2022). Notably, benzodiazepine intoxication may result from intentional or accidental overdose and recreational abuse, leading to excessive sedation, impaired mental status, motor incoordination, ataxia, and anterograde amnesia. The substance’s withdrawal symptoms include blurred vision, concentration problems, abdominal cramps, agoraphobia, anxiety, and dizziness.
Characteristics of Social Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Among the prominent risk factors that contribute to the use, abuse, and dependence on benzodiazepines is the ethnicity of the users. According to Tucker et al. (2017), Caucasian ethnicity increases the likelihood of an individual to misuse and subsequently get dependent on benzodiazepines. Similarly, people between the ages of 50 and 64 years, individuals with untreated mental health conditions, and those who experienced adverse childhood experiences are more likely to misuse benzodiazepines (Maust, Lin, & Blow, 2018). These factors aggravate the risk of misuse and dependence.
Psychopharmacological Effects of Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines increase the effects of the GABA in the brain and body, ultimately making the user to feel sedated, tranquil, and experience reduced levels of anxiety. Additionally, they increase the firing of the dopamine neurons within the ventral tegmental region by positively modulating the GABA receptors in adjacent interneurons. An intoxicated person experiences impairment in various cognitive domains, including processing speed, visuospatial abilities, verbal learning, slurred speech, memory problems, and dizziness. Additionally, benzodiazepines may cause perception problems, delirium, detachment, disturbed sleep, and panic attacks. The substance is associated with such withdrawal symptoms as abdominal cramps, concentration challenges, anxiety, agoraphobia, blurred vision, dizziness, and muscle weaknesses.
How a Counselor Could Intervene
A substance abuse counselor can help a person battling benzodiazepine addiction and withdrawal symptoms through pharmacological interventions combined with cognitive behavioral therapy. These strategies help the patient to regulate their behaviors while the medications can help mitigate the resultant adverse effects of withdrawal. Notably, the pharmacological input will also help the individual to suppress the cravings and control the severe withdrawal effects. For instance, a substance use counselor can support the patient in adopting effective strategies that alleviate sleep disturbances, tensions, and anxieties.
Conclusion
Prescription painkillers, benzodiazepines, caffeine, and nicotine are widely abused substances with significant physiological, psychological, and physical consequences. Notably, these substances contain highly addictive chemical compounds, which occasion dependence with a short period of regular use, misuse, or prolonged consumption. Intoxication caused by benzodiazepines, prescription painkillers, and nicotine and caffeine impair a person’s ability to function effectively and could trigger detrimental health consequences that could even lead to death. Substance use counselors can help people addicted to these substances make better choices, cope with withdrawal symptoms, and cease drug dependence.
References
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Kravitz-Wirtz, N., Davis, C. S., Ponicki, W. R., Rivera-Aguirre, A., Marshall, B. D., Martins, S. S., & Cerda, M. (2020). Association of Medicaid expansion with opioid overdose mortality in the United States. JAMA Network, 3(1), 1-11. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.19066
Mahoney, C. R., Giles, G. E., Marriott, B. P., Judelson, D. A., Glickman, E. L., Geiselman, P. J., & Lieberman, H. R. (2019). Intake of caffeine from all sources and reasons for use by college students. Clinical Nutrition, 38(2), 668-675. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.004
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Volkow, N. D., Jones, E. B., Einstein, E. B., & Wargo, E. M. (2019). Prevention and treatment of opioid misuse and addiction: A review. JAMA Psychiatry,76(2), 208–216. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.3126
Zamani, N., Hassanian-Moghaddam, H., & Zamani, N. (2022). Strategies for the treatment of acute benzodiazepine toxicity in a clinical setting: the role of antidotes. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology, 18(6), 367-379. doi: 10.1080/17425255.2022.2105692
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