Abstract
The report analyzes the benefits of public diplomacy to a developed nation-state using Nicholas Cull’s public diplomacy typology. It defines Public Diplomacy (PD) as statecraft initiatives aimed at educating, persuading, and involving international audiences in pursuit of intergovernmental goals related to national interests. The introductory section provides the context and contents of the report. The report presents the background and interests of public diplomacy drawing boundaries between the conventional and modern definitions of PD. The report analyzes Cull’s five components of PD, which include Listening, Advocacy, Culture Diplomacy, Exchange Diplomacy, and International Broadcasting. The report specifies how Cull’s typologies effect a public diplomacy response. The initiatives assessed are cultural and educational exchange programmes, embassy press relations, high-level sponsored visits, and seminars and conferences. The report recommends investment in exchange programs and strengthening of embassy press relations.
Keywords: public diplomacy, advocacy, developed nation
Introduction
The concept of public diplomacy (PD) involves actively interacting with international audiences to enhance relationships, foster trust, and facilitate collaboration. Public diplomacy in a country seeks to engage with its citizens to elicit their empathy and exert influence over their behaviour and thinking, aligning them with the objectives deemed most advantageous for the country. Academics from many fields, such as political science, public relations, and international studies have created a significant amount of literature since the word was first introduced in the contemporary era in 1965. The report states the benefits of public diplomacy as follows: First, PD facilitates the exchange of ideas, the facilitation of communication, and the cultivation of personal and institutional connections. Second,in the information era, public diplomacy holds significant value as a strategic component of power. Lastly, PD enhances active listening by utilizing techniques such as polling, focus groups, and meetings with the nation’s ambassadors and senior officials to address worries, anxieties, wants, and ambitions of other states. The report evaluates the five key public diplomacy factors developed by Nicholas Cull, including listening, advocacy, culture diplomacy, exchange diplomacy, and international broadcasting. The report details the application of Cull’s typology through cultural and educational exchange programmes, embassy press relations, high-level sponsored visits, and seminars and conferences.
Background and Interests of PD
The phrase “public diplomacy” was introduced in the mid-1960s by Edmund Gullion, a former U.S. diplomat. The term “public diplomacy” (PD) describes a variety of statecraft initiatives that go beyond conventional diplomacy and aim to educate, persuade, and involve international audiences in pursuit of intergovernmental goals related to national interests. Its purpose was to separate the efforts of overseas governments in disseminating information from the term “propaganda,” which had gained negative interpretations. During the latter half of the 20th century, public diplomacy gained significant recognition as a transparent mechanism through which a sovereign nation engages in communication with the populations of other nations (University of Southern California, n.d.). The objective was to educate and sway international audiences to advance the national interest and achieve foreign policy objectives. Public diplomacy is a crucial component of state-to-state diplomacy, encompassing official interactions, usually conducted privately, between leaders and diplomats who represent independent nations. From this perspective, public diplomacy encompass a range of endeavours, including but not limited to educational exchange initiatives targeting researchers and students, visitor programs, language instruction, cultural events, and exchanges, as well as radio and television broadcasts.
In recent times, particularly following the terrorist events on September 11, 2001, there has been a growing focus on public diplomacy by professionals and academics worldwide. In contrast to the conventional, state-centric understanding of public diplomacy, contemporary academic research has presented a more expansive perspective, introducing the notion of novel public diplomacy (University of Southern California, n.d.). This perspective seeks to encompass the rising patterns in international relations, wherein many non-state actors with a certain level of influence in global politics actively communicate and interact with foreign populations. Consequently, these actors actively formulate and advance their public diplomacy strategies and practices.
Nicholas Cull’s Public Diplomacy Factors
Nicholas Cull, a British historian coiled five factors of public diplomacy, which are listening, advocacy, culture diplomacy, exchange diplomacy, and international broadcasting. The report comprehensively examines each component of contemporary international relations.
Listening
Listening, as a PD factor, entails the actor’s endeavour to control the global environment by gathering and organizing information about foreign publics and their viewpoints, then utilizing that information to adjust its policies or broader public diplomacy strategy accordingly. Historically, each component of public diplomacy, such as lobbying, cultural diplomacy, exchange, and broadcasting agencies, focused on its particular audience and conducted opinion research. Gathering information on foreign public opinion is a routine aspect of traditional diplomacy and intelligence operations. At its core, this factor presents a situation where a global participant actively seeks a foreign audience and interacts with them by listening instead of speaking. This is a concept that is often talked about but rarely put into practice. Public diplomacy often reacts to changes in global public opinion, but it is rare to discover instances where listening or systematic opinion monitoring directly influences high-level policy decisions (Cull, 2009, P.18). The ultimate goal of public diplomats is to be involved in the early stages of policy development, rather than just being informed after the policy has failed. For instance, Switzerland has prioritised the act of listening by utilising targeted polling methods (Dodd and Collins, 2017, p.419). Although the practice of systematically evaluating foreign opinion is a recent development, assessing the morale of neighbouring countries has been a consistent aspect of intelligence reports since the inception of espionage.
Advocacy
Advocacy in PD entails the deliberate efforts of a state to influence the global landscape by engaging in international communication activities to actively advocate a certain policy, idea, or the overall interests of that state among a foreign audience. Today, this is performed through the management of embassy press relations, which sometimes involves the challenging task of promoting policy, and informative work (Cull, 2009, P.19). It employs diplomatic communication strategies, such as social media, news releases, website management, and other informational resources, to convey one’s narrative to the global audience. Advocacy encompasses the efforts of nonstate actors to exert influence over state actors or other nonstate actors. Advocacy tactics typically have a shorter duration, are focused on urgent actions, and are strongly linked to policy objectives in the near future (Snow, 2020, p.3). Advocacy can be categorised as either technical or political, depending on the underlying philosophy of the individual or group involved. Political advocates assert that to effectively communicate with foreign audiences, it is crucial to possess a deep understanding of regional expertise, historical knowledge, principles and practices of journalism, and corresponding culture (Snow, 2020, p.4). Edward R. Murrow, the Director of USIA, stated that the purpose of their work is exclusively for international distribution (Snow, 2020, p.4). The U.S.’s public diplomacy has historically been primarily motivated by advocacy, whereas aspects such as exchange and listening have been overlooked (Dodd and Collins, 2017, p.419). Although every state engages in advocacy, the term is most commonly used in American public diplomacy, where every aspect is examined by lawmakers for how it promotes the American ideal.
Culture Diplomacy
Cull defines cultural diplomacy as the deliberate efforts of a state to influence the global landscape by promoting its cultural assets and accomplishments abroad and enabling the exchange of culture with other countries. This factor frequently intersects with exchanges, and as a result, the two are commonly co-located, although rarely with satisfaction. Historically, cultural diplomacy referred to a nation’s strategy aimed at promoting the dissemination of its cultural artefacts and practices. Today, the responsibility for international cultural policy in the UK involves many ministries and organisations, such as the FCO, the British Council, the DCMS, the Arts Councils for different regions of the UK, and the UKTI (Bulut, 2023, pp.56-57). The British Council identifies itself as a ‘Cultural Relations’ institution, while its primary methods involve cultural activities and exchanges, and its main goal aligns with diplomatic efforts. For instance, French initiatives have mostly concentrated on cultural diplomacy through foreign art exhibition tours (Dodd and Collins, 2017, p.419). The French have been the primary supporters of Cultural Diplomacy, investing significant funds in establishing and maintaining an extensive global network of schools to promote the French language. They recognise that their reputation and influence are closely linked to the preservation of the francophonie.
Exchange Diplomacy
Cull used the factor, “exchange diplomacy” to describe an actor’s efforts to influence global affairs through the placement of its citizens abroad and the acceptance of foreign nationals for learning and integration. Although this could be seen as a one-way process, the presence of reciprocity has created a stronghold for the idea of “mutuality” in diplomatic interventions (Dodd and Collins, 2017, p.419). In contrast to cultural diplomacy, which emphasises unidirectional communication and the transfer of ideas, exchange diplomacy most accurately characterises a reciprocal relationship between countries. Exchanges are utilised for a variety of policy and lobbying reasons, including but not limited to targeted development, fostering military interoperability with allies, and cultural activities. Historically, interactions between nations took precedence in the promotion of one’s own culture. There is a plethora of programmes that facilitate cultural and educational exchanges in the UK. One new initiative from the British government that helps pay for study abroad programmes is the Turing Scheme (UK Parliament, 2021). It opens doors for British citizens to study abroad and gain work experience in different countries.
International Broadcasting
International Broadcasting (IB) refers to an actor’s strategy of utilising radio, television, and internet technologies to interact with overseas audiences and effectively navigate the worldwide landscape. Although commercial IB may be considered as public diplomacy (PD), it primarily serves the interests of the corporate parent, which might manipulate its content or demand strict objectivity to achieve its own goals (Cull, 2009, P.21). Both commercial and state-funded international broadcasting can have an impact on the environment in which all public diplomacy is conducted. A prime example of this is the emergence of Al Jazeera News. When states engage in IB work, they often perform various functions that can also be found in other forms of public diplomacy. These functions include listening to and researching the audience, advocating and providing information through editorials or policy broadcasts, and engaging in cultural diplomacy by exchanging cultural content and personnel with other broadcasters. International Broadcasting’s most influential aspect is in its use of news, particularly when such news is impartial (Cull, 2009, P.21). The factor has attempted to incorporate different ethical sources and models into its content, such as religious broadcasting networks (Al Jazeera) financed by Arab states. The BBC World Service has been highly successful in worldwide broadcasting, which has been a prominent aspect of British public diplomacy. In the U.S., the Voice of America has become a renowned international broadcasting entity that promotes America’s interests globally.
Application of Cull’s Typology to Effect a PD Response
Cull’s five-factor typology provides effective techniques for developed nations to advance their public diplomatic agendas. The report examines the use of cultural and educational exchange, embassy press relations, foreign language broadcasting, and seminars and conferences. Success is contingent upon the credibility, relevancy, and consistency of the initiatives.
Cultural and Educational Exchange
As previously observed, cultural exchange inherently lacks any explicit political message. However, the abundance of a country’s culture presents a favourable perception, whether it is expressed through refined cultural activities like painting, opera, or classical dance, or more accessible forms like sports, popular music, or fashion (Hunt, 2016, p.62). As a result, when a developed nation actively promotes and even provides financial support for these exchanges, the concept of cultural diplomacy comes into play. Those developed nations can frequently provide support to emerging and lesser-known artists to showcase their dedication to fostering fresh and groundbreaking artistic abilities. In addition, they can actively promote high-profile events, such as a concert by a renowned musician or a significant exhibition showcasing their nation’s history and culture.
Another productive domain for collaboration exists within the academic realm, encompassing both scientific and humanistic disciplines. Educational exchanges, including scholarship programmes, hold significant value due to their engagement with young individuals, making them an investment in the future (Hunt, 2016, p.62). Certain scholarships can be founded on charity and designed to promote the growth and progress of both the individual recipients and their home nations. Others, with less altruistic intentions, are specifically created to foster the development of future leaders. For instance, the United States’s Fulbright program is one of its longstanding exchange diplomacy programs that seek to enhance knowledge, skills, and labour exchange. The Fulbright Programme currently collaborates with over 160 nations worldwide, receiving financial support from a mix of US public and private funding, and contributions from foreign sources, which differ among partner countries (Bettie, 2020, p.219). The primary objective of the Fulbright Programme, as explicitly stated in the original legislation and consistently reiterated in official programme documentation, is to foster mutual understanding. The issue with such plans is in their long-term impact, making it challenging to accurately anticipate or evaluate their performance. As a result, when governments face financial constraints, the resources allocated for scholarships sometimes see reductions. When cultural and educational exchanges do not have a specific political agenda, it is argued that it would be beneficial to create some separation between these exchanges and the governments involved in to increase their credibility. The presence of independent cultural organisations like the Alliance Française, the British Council, and the Goethe Institute contributes to the success and prestige of these organisations by creating a sense of separation or detachment. For such exchange programs, success is measured by the growth in the number of people speaking a country’s language abroad, the number of cultural institutions established, and mutual agreements established.
Embassy press relations
A nation’s capacity to protect its security and advance its interests depends greatly on its ability to shape the global conversation on a variety of topics. Conventional methods such as embassies, media appearances, and cultural exchanges continue to be significant in achieving this objective. based on Cull’s typology, embassy press relations are part of the advocacy factor that a developed nation can apply to promote its ideologies. Digital diplomacy and press releases are central to a nation’s engagement in foreign relations through its embassies. Utilizing digital diplomacy through Twitter for diplomatic purposes can enhance conventional bilateral communication and talks. Many countries in Central-Eastern Europe and the West utilise embassy Twitter accounts to actively participate in public diplomacy and press relations communication (Dodd and Collins, 2017, p.418). Embassies serve as official diplomatic missions of a country’s government in a foreign nation. The embassy serves the function of relaying communications from the home nation to the host nation, providing a distinct opportunity for establishing diplomatic contact.
When a nation desires to promote its international humanitarian efforts, express its official stance on transnational issues, or advocate for its endorsement of global agreements, it can utilize its embassy’s Twitter account to focus on a specific country or audience. Foreign ministries of countries worldwide operate several social media profiles, representing embassies, specific initiatives, and individuals (Collins et al., 2019, p.82). Ambassadors are now more inclined to publish their tweets, and Twitter has granted them greater autonomy in the substance of their statements. For instance, the Danish embassy’s press office in London is responsible for managing the embassy’s interactions with the press, such as coordinating interviews with government officials in Denmark and providing British journalists with information about Danish developments and outlets. The United States Embassy in Poland (@USEmbassyWarsaw) is also a good example of a Western country reaching out to a Central and Eastern European country. The success of embassy press relations is measured by the consumption of the country’s media and press release information, the number of social media engagements and following, especially on Twitter, and ideologies adopted by social media entities of the foreign country.
High-level Sponsored Visits
Sponsored visits are a highly effective public diplomacy effort that seeks to enhance advocacy, listening, and cultural exchange. Through such missions, leaders in developed nations allocate substantial portions of their limited and precious time to engage in overseas travel. For instance, previous U.S. presidents allocated a significant portion, around one-third, of their time to international travel (Goldsmith et al., 2021, p.1344). During these visits, they actively participated in major public diplomacy efforts, directly communicating with foreign audiences and participating in public events that were televised. During President Trump’s visit to Japan in May 2019, he engaged in several activities including a joint news conference with Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, partaking in a traditional Japanese dinner, gracing a sumo tournament, and meeting Japan’s Emperor, Naruhito (Goldsmith et al., 2021, p.1344). Public diplomacy is not typically the main motive behind leaders’ international travel. Instead, closed-door conversations with host leaders have a greater impact on security and economic partnerships.
High-level visits are very effective in capturing the audience’s attention because they typically attract significant media coverage. Host leaders have the authority to influence the impact of international public diplomacy as they have a crucial role in deciding when, how, and in what manner a visit takes place (Goldsmith et al., 2021, p.1344). They also can shape public diplomacy initiatives by not only managing invites to foreign leaders but also by exerting control over the subjects that receive attention from domestic media through their authority to establish the agenda. The impact of a visit by a high-ranking individual primarily refers to the influence it has on the media system and subsequently on the public’s consumption of media coverage. The efficacy of public diplomacy is gauged based on the alteration of perceptions rather than the amount of money expended or the distribution of material goods (Goirizelaia, 2020, p.280). Whether in market-driven or state-driven media systems, officials from both visiting and host countries endeavour to organize events that foster a particular reputation advantageous to their own country’s interests. This initiative resonates with Cull’s advocacy and listening aspects of diplomacy.
Seminars and Conferences
Seminars and conferences can be positioned at any point along the listening-messaging spectrum. Developed nations can support and establish think tanks and similar institutions globally financially. These institutions can facilitate talks on global concerns like climate change and human rights, as well as regional conflicts, such as the Israel-Palestine war (Hunt, 2016, p.63). By doing this, they provide a platform for several viewpoints that may otherwise be overlooked. On the opposite side of the spectrum, a developed country can organise seminars to promote trade, foreign investment, and tourism. Although these events occasionally acknowledge the main premise of public relations by incorporating input from contented customers, their primary focus is on conveying a certain message. The number of international conferences hosted by a country would signify the success of promoting the developed nation’s interests and values.
Conclusion
The report outlines three broad advantages of public diplomacy: a) it enables the sharing of ideas, the promotion of communication, and the fostering of personal and institutional relationships; b) in the era of information, it acts as a strategic element of power; c) it improves active listening by employing methods such as surveys, focus groups, and meetings with diplomats and high-ranking officials from foreign countries to address their concerns, anxieties, desires, and aspirations. Nicholas Cull’s typology consists of five components, including listening, advocacy, culture diplomacy, exchange diplomacy, and international broadcasting. Developed nations can enhance public diplomacy through several initiatives and programs. One of the ways to enhance diplomacy is through cultural and educational exchange programs. Another initiative is through embassy press relations factored around digital diplomacy via embassy Twitter accounts. Besides, high-level sponsored visits promote cultural and ideological exchange, thus influencing foreign policy issues like security and economic agendas. Seminars and conferences also facilitate the sharing of knowledge, development ideas, and resources, which are crucial in shaping the diplomatic discourse.
Recommendations
The report makes two recommendations to improve public diplomacy and boost a nation’s stance on foreign policy issues:
- Developed nations must increase investment in cultural and educational exchange programmes to effectively influence foreign policies.
- Enhance communication between embassies and the press and invest in digital platforms for advocacy purposes.
References
Bettie, M., 2020. Exchange diplomacy: theory, policy and practice in the Fulbright program. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 16(3), pp.212-223. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00147-1
Bulut, F., 2023. Cultural Diplomacy in the UK and Germany: Two Models from the 21st Century (Doctoral dissertation, UCL (University College London)). https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10173347/1/Firdevs%20Bulut%2016143235%2007.07.2023.thesis.pdf
Collins, S.D., DeWitt, J.R. and LeFebvre, R.K., 2019. Hashtag diplomacy: twitter as a tool for engaging in public diplomacy and promoting US foreign policy. Place branding and public diplomacy, 15, pp.78-96. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00119-5
Cull, N.J., 2009. Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past (Vol. 22). Los Angeles, CA: Figueroa Press. Pp. 1-62. https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/sites/uscpublicdiplomacy.org/files/useruploads/u35361/2009%20Paper%202.pdf
Dodd, M.D. and Collins, S.J., 2017. Public relations message strategies and public diplomacy 2.0: An empirical analysis using Central-Eastern European and Western Embassy Twitter accounts. Public relations review, 43(2), pp.417-425.
Goirizelaia, M., 2020. Public diplomacy by educational and cultural exchange programs. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 16, pp.279-287. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00154-2
Goldsmith, B.E., Horiuchi, Y. and Matush, K., 2021. Does public diplomacy sway foreign public opinion? Identifying the effect of high-level visits. American Political Science Review, 115(4), pp.1342-1357. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/7523009C0A86135F6164DD8D439AAEB0/S0003055421000393a.pdf/does_public_diplomacy_sway_foreign_public_opinion_identifying_the_effect_of_highlevel_visits.pdf
Hunt, A., 2016. Tools and Techniques of Public Diplomacy. In Public Diplomacy: What it is and how to Do it. United Nations. Pp. 61-66. https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/books/9789210578646s006-c001/read
Snow, N., 2020. Public Diplomacy. OXFORD RESEARCH ENCYCLOPEDIA, INTERNATIONAL STUDIES. International Studies Association and Oxford University Press USA. Pp. 1-31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343413437_Public_Diplomacy
U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy., 2022. Building America’s public diplomacy through a reformed structure and additional resources. U.S. Department of State. Pp. 1-16. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Building-Americas-Public-Diplomacy-Through-a-Reformed-Structure-and-Additional-Resources.pdf
UK Parliament., 2021. Educational and cultural exchange programmes. House of Lords Library. https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/educational-and-cultural-exchange-programmes/
University of Southern California., n.d.. A BRIEF HISTORY OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY. USC Center on Public Diplomacy. https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=AwrhSx230PplYAQAU8dXNyoA;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzEEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3Nj/RV=2/RE=1712145847/RO=10/RU=https%3a%2f%2fuscpublicdiplomacy.org%2fpage%2fwhat-is-pd%23%3a~%3atext%3dAs%2520coined%2520in%2520the%2520mid-1960s%2520by%2520former%2520U.S.%2cthe%2520term%2520propaganda%252C%2520which%2520had%2520acquired%2520pejorative%2520connotations./RK=2/RS=03wF45ryuxJdbZ_n58NfBMNQ9t0-
write