Introduction
Imagine living where it is challenging to obtain safe, clean water and where there is a constant fight for the fundamental human right to clean water. This is a daily issue for the residents of the remote Cambodian village known as Pu Ngaol. This is a significant issue that has stayed in this village for decades. It is an eye-catching problem discovered during the investigation into the water problems in this community. Numerous water-related problems are present in Pu Ngaol and the surrounding areas due to factors like agriculture, population growth, and the drastic seasonal variations in climate. In the community, the water-related diseases have increased with many cases reported, thus subjecting the community to a paralyzed state economically and health-wise. Even though the authorities have been involved in this matter and public health, much must be done to ensure the Pu Ngaol area is safe for every human life and that the water taken for survival is clean and safe. Children and adults need to be protected from these water-related issues that have drained them and denied them from having a long, healthy life. The main aim of this review is to shed light on these crucial issues that people in this century are still facing and to emphasize how important these matters should be taken as they are affecting people’s lives and the lives of the future generation. A solution should be made for the people of Pu Ngaol to have readily available, cheap, clean water sources for their everyday lives.
Water Issues Faced in Pu Ngaol, Cambodia.
Cambodia has a population of about 16 million; studies show that about 72% lack access to safely managed clean water sources. This implies that the society is at risk of contracting waterborne diseases. The population lacks access to clean water sources and is exposed to outdated water channels. Also, 38% of the population is exposed to poor sanitation, especially those living in rural areas. The lack of poor access to water and sanitation has subjected the Cambodian community to more cases of waterborne diseases. Despite the country being known to be one of the fastest growing in terms of economy, the water issue needs attention. The sanitation issue has remained the main challenge in this community, and governments should design functional goals and strategies to deal with the condition. UNICEF has joined the government of Cambodia in providing clean drinking water and toilets for the community. They have emphasized the need for the community to observe the WASH program in schools and the entire community. However, some rural areas in Cambodia still need this WASH program due to increased water challenges. One rural village that should be given attention is Pu Ngaol in Cambodia.
Pu Ngaol village is located in the Mondulkiri province, in Kaev Seima district in Memang commune. The village is diverse, with different indigenous people. The village needs moreneeds more ground wells and betterbetter sanitation to support its people. Pu Ngaol is one of the villages in the Mondulkiri province that has gained public health attention due to the hygiene and sanitation situation on the land. Research shows that only 18% of the households in the village can afford well-designed restrooms, while the rest practice open defecation. This explains why waterborne diseases are prevalent in the village. Most of the fecal matter in the public is washed down to the waters during rainy seasons. Consuming the water with contaminated fecal matter subjects one to the health risk. They can develop severe health conditions aside from water-related diseases.
Life in Pu Ngaol, Cambodia, is marked by a constant struggle to obtain safe and pure drinking water. The residents, especially the students, start their daily routine by fetching water from rivers, ponds, and shallow wells, which are often contaminated. This heavy reliance on contaminated water sources poses public health concerns and increases the long-term risk of waterborne diseases. The limited access to clean water not only affects the physical health of the community but also hampers their educational and economic opportunities, making it more challenging to break the cycle of poverty and illness. Besides, these open water sources are not well protected from the exposure of disease-causing microorganisms. This means that the people using the water from the various households might contract waterborne diseases without their knowledge. The village’s economy is affected in that many resources are wasted in treating the infection, which could have been prevented in the first place.
The inadequate sanitation infrastructure in Pu Ngaol is directly connected to the problem of low water quality. This situation is aggravated by the absence of effective sewage systems and wastewater treatment facilities, which leads to the careless discharge of untreated sewage into nearby bodies of water. This unregulated release worsens the issue of water pollution by further contaminating accessible water sources. This problem impacts water quality and affects living conditions and overall hygiene within the community, making it a multifaceted challenge that requires immediate attention. The hygienic status in the village is alarming as many of the people have considered open defecation to be the only option due to the high cost of building the toilets. They travel to the forests to release their fecal matter, failing to wash their hands. This subjects them to the risk of spreading the pathogens to other people within the households. The hygienic practices in the village are inferior, and most of the residents have failed to observe the prevention measures to treat the infections.
The water sources in Pu Ngaol are highly vulnerable to contamination and pollution. The improper disposal of waste, industrial pollution, and runoff of agricultural chemicals contribute to this susceptibility. As a result, the quality of the available water deteriorates due to the combined effects of these factors. The contamination of these water sources with pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogens poses various health risks to the local population. The contamination increases healthcare costs, further straining the already limited resources of the community. The community has failed to observe environmental conservation measures, and the careless disposal of waste into water sources contributes to the increased cases of waterborne diseases among the residents in Pu Ngaol village.
Case studies
Kenya Down-Flow Hanging Sponge – Slow Sand Filter (DFHS-SSF)
Waterborne diseases remain a significant public health concern in many rural areas of East Africa, where access to safe drinking water is limited. Drinking water is essential for human survival, and when there is not enough clean water, humans are forced to take unsafe water in their respective environments. Waterborne diseases have become one of the significant issues; some of the waterborne diseases reported are cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, amoeba, E. coli, and shigellosis. East Africa is a developing country with low- and middle-income people. According to WHO reports, about 38% of the developing countries in Africa lack clean water sources, about 19% lack improved sanitation services, and 35% lack good hygiene in cleaning their hands with soaps and clean water. This explains why East African countries are at risk of contracting waterborne diseases. The WHO has designed several interventions to ensure the community is exposed to safer water and reduce the deaths related to waterborne diseases in sub-Saharan countries.
In this case study, we explore developing and implementing a Down-Flow Hanging Sponge – Slow Sand Filter (DFHS-SSF) system as a water purification solution to reduce infection risk in an East African rural community. This innovative system combines traditional slow sand filtration with hanging sponge filtration to enhance water quality and protect the local population from waterborne diseases (Ishikawa et al., 2023). The DFHS SSF technology has caught the world’s attention, especially in the developing countries of the East African region inclusive. The East African region faced a high prevalence of waterborne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, and diarrhea, primarily due to poor water quality and inadequate sanitation infrastructure. The existing water sources are often contaminated with pathogens, making the population vulnerable to such diseases. In response to this challenge, a local non-governmental organization (NGO) initiated a project to develop a cost-effective and sustainable water purification system tailored to the community’s needs (Ishikawa et al., 2023).
The DFHS is part of the trickling filter, which has proved effective in water treatment. This tool has been implemented in African countries, especially the East African region. In this tool, the sponge is the carrier, which retains the microorganism capable of causing diseases. Besides, the sponge can remove the fecal coliforms in the water, leaving the water safe for consumption. It is preferred because it is durable and lasts over five years after being well-installed. This means this tool is highly sustainable and recommended in East African countries. The water purification process is effective using the DFHS, where public and household water is purified to ensure safe and clean water consumption. Many people in East Africa have consumed contaminated water without their knowledge, which results in increased waterborne diseases in the East Africa region.
The DFHS-SSF system integrates two key components:
Slow Sand Filtration
The DFHS-SSF system incorporates a traditional slow sand filter, a proven technology for removing suspended solids, bacteria, and other contaminants from water. Local materials like gravel, sand, and charcoal are used to construct the filter bed, which facilitates the removal of impurities through biological and physical processes. Sand filtration is preferred in this process because they are affordable in terms of cost and maintenance; however, it requires the right skills in the operation. This process filters the untreated water slowly through the porous sand; the influent water is introduced to the surface of the filter and later drained to the bottom (Freitas et al., 2022). No chemicals are added to support the filtration process; it is a natural process that ensures the waters are clean. The component is advantageous because it is simple to operate with little power. This makes it a preferred tool for removing the organic and inorganic matter from the water and leaving it clean. All the pathogens are removed from the water during the slow filtration. Also, the water’s cloudiness is removed, making it safe to use without the disinfection process. Besides, it has reduced the cases of handling sludge without close supervision and maximizes the available resources in the local village.
Hanging Sponge Filtration
A hanging sponge filtration component is integrated to improve the system’s efficiency. Local sponges were used for this purpose and suspended within the filter bed. The sponges provided additional surface area for beneficial microorganisms to colonize and aid in water purification. The sponge is one of the simplest water filtration methods and is affordable locally. The microorganism responsible for causing diseases in the water was colonized in the sponge and thus allowed the clean water to move through the filtration process. Sponge filtration can be traced back to the late 19th century, which is still valid. The unwanted particles stick to their sides when the water touches the sponge (Nur, 2020). The small pores trap the large particles while the tiny ones are stuck on the sponge. This technique is used by using the surface area about the size of the filter. However, this sponge is cleaned regularly to prevent the contaminants from building up and to ensure a smooth filtration process.
The system operates through gravity, reducing the need for electricity and ensuring sustainability in rural areas. Community involvement played a vital role, with locals trained in maintenance, filter cleaning, and water quality monitoring, fostering ownership and long-term project sustainability.
(Ishikawa et al., 2023)
Implementing the DFHS-SSF system in the rural community of East Africa yielded transformative outcomes. Firstly, the system effectively decreased the total organic carbon, color, and turbidity by over 80% after the two-week operation. The treated water could be used for household water as well as drinking water supplied by the DHS-SSF system, reducing the infection risk of diarrhea by up to 99.5% (Ishikawa et al., 2023). This improvement, in turn, led to a remarkable reduction in the incidence of waterborne diseases, notably cholera and typhoid, contributing to better overall health and a noticeable decrease in healthcare expenses related to waterborne illnesses. Besides, the community participation in this program contributed to its success. The local community received education on the implemented system operation and maintenance skills. This was purposely to empower them to have the desired skills to control their access to clean water. With this program in operation, it minimized the community’s dependence on external support. It promoted a sense of responsibility in which every individual in the household was accountable for their respective actions. It promoted the long-term sustainability of water sources in the village. The success of this project created a pathway for other countries in East Africa and beyond to engage in the same system to have water quality.
From the case study, the implementation of DFHS SSF in the East African rural areas has served as an example that others can emulate. This system has reduced the risk of waterborne disease outbreaks in the society. The case study has shown the significance of community involvement in such innovative technology to have a sustainable and clean water supply. The project serves as a model for sustainable water purification solutions in similar settings, contributing to the overall well-being and health of rural communities in East Africa.
Cambodia-Ceramic Filter
More than 1 billion people globally do not have access to clean water sources, and most lack proper hygiene and sanitation due to access to unsafe water (Brown & Sobsey, 2009). The water is not safe due to the contamination and bacteria. This was solved by designing low-cost and efficient ceramic filters which supply over 100,000 households. Within Cambodia and other rural countries, there is a staggering burden of water-related diseases, which are primarily susceptible to the elderly, children, and immune-compromised individuals. The lack of a suitable foundation for water delivery and sterilization offices hampers the unavailability of clean water. The main issue that was faced during the project was creating filters that could produce a critical microbe that was low-cost and locally available within rural Cambodia. Addressing the water crisis in rural Cambodia appeared essential to improving the health and well-being of the local population and ensuring sustainable progress in this area. As a result, the solution was a flowerpot-shaped porous ceramic filter successfully implemented widely in the country and reduced critical microbes with a mean reduction of approximately 99% for E. coli and 90% to 99% for bacteriophages (Brown & Sobsey, 2009).
The idea of Cambodia making the ceramic filters has been in operation since 2003. Even though it started on a small scale by designing its ceramic filters, within five years, it has supplied about 24,000 filters to the Cambodian population. Ceramic filters are one of the most preferred tools in water filtration. The filters have significantly reduced the resident’s exposure to the contaminated water because they have an effective tool. Besides, it had reduced the cases of diarrhea, which had become prevalent in the region. The RDIC is innovative and has continued to thrive in helping the residents be well-equipped with water treatment measures. Therefore, having ceramic filters in Pu Ngaol village is one of the lasting solutions to water issues since it has been proven to work in some places in the country.
Ceramic filters use advanced technology to guarantee the quality and safety of the water. The ceramic filter is a recommended filtration tool that uses tiny pores to filter bacteria. This versatile water filtration process is used in homes and commercial environments, even schools, to ensure people drink clean water. The filter uses a natural ceramic media, which is applied in various ways, such as under the sink, on the countertop, and gravity-fed (Yang et al., 2020). The research has confirmed that it’s one of the economic tools used in water filtration and ensures the water is clean. This is an approach that ensures the water is clean as desired. The community has preferred this tool over bottled water to access clean water for consumption and other uses. The ceramic filter is durable and can be cleaned and reused; this reduces the number of replacements with new ones and thus saves on cost. In the ceramic filters, some of the models are portable, such as the gravity-fed.
(Brown and Sobsey, 2009)
This product allows the water to run through the countless tiny pores. The pores are microns and trap all the impurities likely in the water, leaving the water clean and safe for human consumption. Instead, the filter is well-designed with sharp angles that trap some particles that could have passed through the exterior surface. The water movement through the entire process is safe and traps some contaminants and pathogens in the water, such as bacteria and some of the sediments. This process of filtration can be assumed to be like the natural process of filtration where water passes through the rock on the earth’s surface, and in the process, they are purified. The water from the ceramic filter passes through the natural media to purify itself from the impurities. This filter has become very reliable in the filtration of drinking water, and it mostly removes bacteria, which proves its accuracy at 99% purification from bacteria. The particulate matter, such as waste, dirt, and rust, is also removed to ensure the water is clean and safe for human use.
The product now was that in Cambodia, the people had safe and clean water, which prevented water disease from susceptible elderly, children, and immune-compromised individuals. Due to the low cost, there are now over 100,000 households that have access to a ceramic filter. (Brown and Sobsey, 2009). We can implement this design in Pu Ngaol as it is low-cost and can be mass-produced locally. In this way, people in Pu Ngaol now have access to safe and clean water without fearing water disease.
Pu Ngaol- Case study
Pu Ngaol has many compelling difficulties in providing a sustainable and efficient water supply for agriculture. Water plays a crucial role in the lives of the local farmers, whose primary source of income depends on agriculture. Improving the water supply networks is very much needed to support the local farmers. The economic stability of the village depends on its stable farming process. The farmers should have access to the desired water sources free from contaminants to produce healthy crops for human consumption. The following case study outlines the assessment and methods to upgrade the water supply in Pu Ngaol to support agriculture.
Assessment
Pu Ngaol’s primary water sources are the Ou Te River, groundwater reserves, and groundwater wells. These are all limited water sources, as they are used exceedingly and not managed properly. Also, the water levels change according to the season, which leads to a lack of water during the hotter periods, which affects the agriculture industry. This means that the farmers have to work with the water available, thus limiting them from planting some crops that need more water. The farmers living away from the water sources might be unable to grow the crops they desire; they plant crops that do well with little water available.
The infrastructure to store water in Pu Ngaol is minimal, which causes scarcity and water wastage depending on the season, and this leads to affecting the crop yield and quality, which ends up affecting farmers’ incomes. The water storage infrastructure should be prioritized in the pu Ngaol village; this will help the village have enough food. The village needs to develop strategies in which all the natural and man-made water features are readily available to move and treat water in any given location. Through this, water will be available in every household, thus giving farmers the freedom to grow crops of their interest for commercial and domestic use.
Methods.
To improve the infrastructure of storing water that can be used for agriculture, the local authorities can build ponds and reservoirs so water can be collected from the rainfall and the Ou Te River. The collected water stored in the ponds and reservoirs will be kept safe and treated to ensure the community uses safe water for agricultural use. Also, it will be treated to avoid mosquitos breeding near the waters, which can affect the residents around the water sources. The water sources should be supplied to the community farmers when no rainfall nourishes the plants. When the water is well stored, the farmers will enjoy the agricultural services. Therefore, there will be enough food for domestic use and others for commercial use to boost the village’s economy. The value of storage infrastructure in the community should upheld. However, the farmers should also put in more effort to have high production in correspondence to the water supplied to nourish their plants.
The local authorities can also create a water management team to ensure water is divided equally and provided to farmers; this can help control usage and ensure water levels don’t become too low. This team will ensure all the households have equal access to water. The water management system should have professionals committed to ensuring all the farmers have access to water. There should be a fair distribution of the waters into the farmlands, and the farmers should also be encouraged to have their own storage infrastructure. Water storage can be built on farms with the support of local government funding to ensure all the farmers have a stable water flow for high yields. Besides, the farmers should be equipped with the knowledge of proper water usage to avoid wastage, and this will help ensure they have enough to cater to their farming needs.
An example is the Government of the Netherlands working with local authorities in India to manage water better. Farmers can also be educated on efficiently conserving water and be taught farming methods with manageable water usage. The government can set up workshops to educate the farmers. Education will have a long-lasting impact on the production in the village; it will help the farmers be creative in ways to store water for agricultural use. Following these methods can help the lives of the farmers in the Pu Ngaol region as their quality of life will increase since they will have a reliable water source, and water will be managed accordingly, which is vital for crop yields. Therefore, farmers will have more income, and the agriculture industry will thrive.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Pu Ngaol, Cambodia, is facing a water crisis that must be addressed immediately due to its seriousness. The people in Pu Ngaol face difficulties accessing safe and clean drinking water, contaminated water sources, and poor sanitary facilities; there are severe issues with public health and the environment. This will enrich the people of Pu Ngaol’s well-being, and solving this issue would boost their economic and educational growth. To terminate Pu Ngaol’s sequence of poverty and disease and ensure that its citizens receive a more fantastic and healthier future, they will need to implement ecological solutions such as better water sources, hygienic practices, and environmental preservation measures. These measures can also help the lives of the farmers in the Pu Ngaol region as their quality of life will increase since they will have a reliable water source, and water will be managed accordingly, which is vital for crop yields. Farmers will have more income, and the agriculture industry will thrive, resulting in more capital to start different kinds of projects to resolve the water problems that people in this community face every day of their lives. Shining light on these problems and seeking financial aid is also necessary for projects such as filtration systems for the boreholes, dams that will be a way of storing water and also be used for generating electricity, filtered water piping directly from the river directly into people’s homes and many more projects could be achieved to shape the lives of the youths in this community.
References
Brown, J. & Sobsey, M.D. (2009). Microbiological effectiveness of locally produced ceramic filters for drinking water treatment in Cambodia. Journal of Water and Health, 8(1), 1–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2009.007.
Countdown to the UN 2023 Water Conference: Sustainable Water Management in India (2023). https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2023/03/21/sustainable-water-management-in-india (Accessed: October 25, 2023).
Engineers without Borders South Africa, U. a. A., n.d. [Online]. https://www.ewb-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/EngineeringForPeople_TheDesignBrief2019-20.pdf
Engineers without Borders. https://www.ewb-uk.org/upskill/design-challenges/engineering-for-people-design-challenge/welcome/design-brief-cambodia/
Freitas, B. L. S., Terin, U. C., Fava, N. D. M. N., Maciel, P. M. F., Garcia, L. A. T., Medeiros, R. C., … & Sabogal-Paz, L. P. (2022). A critical overview of household slow sand filters for water treatment. Water Research, 208, 117870.
Ishikawa, C., Watari, T., Kawakami, S., Hatamoto, M., Murakami, Y., & Yamaguchi, T. (2023). Development of down-flow hanging sponge–slow sand filter system as water purification system: Infection risk reduction in an East Africa rural area. Scientific African, 19, e01500.
Nur, A. B. A. B. (2020). Development of potential zero water exchange system for recirculating aquarium using down-flow hanging sponge (DHS) reactor and up-flow sludge blanket (USB) reactor coupled with Ozone.
Yang, H., Xu, S., Chitwood, D. E., & Wang, Y. (2020). Ceramic water filter for point-of-use water treatment in developing countries: Principles, challenges, and opportunities. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, pp. 14, 1–10.
write