Introduction
Media texts are a powerful tool for shaping societal perceptions and constructing ideologies. An ideology refers to a set of beliefs and values that guide individual and societal actions. Media texts can communicate ideologies that shape how people perceive the world and themselves. The Frankfurt School, a group of Marxist intellectuals, believe that the mass media is a tool for promoting capitalist ideology. According to them, media content deliberately manipulates the audience into accepting the overall cultural values, reinforcing the societal power structures. Our essay delves into how ideologies are woven within media texts and their impact on shaping audience perceptions. We will engage closely with a specific example and demonstrate how ideologies work in the ‘text’ and in relation to their audience. We will also incorporate what was taught in the seven lectures of the course to provide a comprehensive analysis.
The Frankfurt School: Debates in Media Studies
The Frankfurt School, a group of German critical theorists, coined the term “cultural industry” to describe the mass production of cultural products like music, film, and TV for profit (Berry, 2013). The school claimed that the cultural industry perpetuates established ideologies reinforcing the societal framework. The uniformity of cultural products generated by the cultural industry contributes to the homogenization of culture and reinforces prevalent beliefs and values. The Frankfurt School argues that the cultural industry maintains the ruling class’s interests and domination by shaping consumers’ tastes and preferences. The false sense of choice created by the cultural industry obscures the underlying power structures in society, leading to the commodification of culture.
Therefore, the Frankfurt School’s concept of the cultural industry highlights the intricate relationships between culture, economics, and politics (Berry, 2013). The media can shape our perceptions and beliefs, while the cultural industry maintains the existing power structures. It can feel overwhelming, but understanding the intricacies of this perpetuating cycle is crucial to comprehending how these systems form our beliefs and values. By gaining insight into the role of media in shaping societal norms, we open ourselves up to greater self-awareness and a deeper understanding of why we hold particular perspectives.
Masculinities in the Media
At times, masculinity can be seen as a complicated and multi-faced idea that media studies have hotly discussed. Theories of masculine criticism challenge old ideas of domination, power, and control exhibited in traditional masculinity. Men’s magazines, as Moss (2012) suggests, are introducing the “new masculinities”, which revolve around gentler versions where men can express their emotions without fear or discomfort to appeal to young male audiences who want to step away from conventional stereotypes. Nonetheless, critics raise concerns over these magazines because they obtain a narrow perspective on masculinity and disregard people such as gay or black men as part of this group.
Recognizing that masculinity is dynamic and ever-evolving, including various cultural and societal influences, is essential. Thus, it is crucial to evaluate masculinity from various angles, considering how it interacts with other factors like race, sexuality, and class. Men’s magazines need to acknowledge and portray the many perspectives of oppressed groups while simultaneously trying to rethink and widen the idea of masculinity. They may achieve this by developing a more inclusive and thorough image of masculinity that encourages and affirms all men. In the end, comprehending masculinity is a process that calls for constant contemplation, dialogue, and interaction with a variety of different points of view.
Cultural Studies Approaches to Media Research
Cultural studies research in media studies is concerned with how media messages are created, disseminated and consumed. Durham and Kellner (2012) suggest that the political economy of communication is a crucial concept within cultural studies. This approach examines how the media reinforces current power structures within society. In contrast, cultural studies focus on how audiences interpret media texts and how they create meaning. It emphasizes the importance of the social and cultural context that shapes these interpretations.
As outlined by Stuart Hall, there are three primary ways audiences can interpret media texts: hegemonic, negotiated and oppositional readings (Castleberry, 2016). The hegemonic reading is when an audience member accepts the message of the media text and reinforces the status quo. A negotiated reading is when an audience member understands the message but negotiates the meaning within their own experiences and context. An oppositional reading is when an audience member actively resists the message of the media text and seeks to challenge the status quo.
Taste, Class & Cultural Capital
Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus, field, and capital are essential in understanding taste, class, and cultural capital in the media. Habitus refers to the dispositions, attitudes, and tastes that are shaped by our social and cultural experiences. The social setting in which such behaviours are displayed is called the field. The resources individuals may use to uphold their social and cultural position are called capital. According to his detractors, Bourdieu’s thesis undermines people’s agency and capacity to disagree with prevailing notions.
Consumer Culture, Consumption and the Media
Consumer culture and the media have a complex relationship. The media shapes our desires and needs by promoting certain lifestyles and products (Iqani, 2011). It plays a significant role in the commodification of communication, where communication is reduced to a product to be bought and sold. Celebritisation is another aspect of consumer culture that reinforces inequalities by promoting the idea that fame and success are attainable for everyone.
‘Them’ & ‘Us’ Racial Representations of the Other
With a particular focus on how it depicts “the other” group, the representation of race in media is a severe issue in media studies (Nasir et al., 2017). The researchers have looked at the derogatory stereotypes about ethnic minorities frequently presented in news, movies, and TV shows, in addition to ads, to learn more about this subject. Members of these minority groups may experience negative effects on their self-esteem and general well-being due to these depictions (Popelková, 2014). In addition, capitalism frequently turns a person’s ethnicity into a commodity, with marketers converting it into something that needs to be marketed. This further reinforces the divide between “them” and “us” and perpetuates racial stereotypes. The commodification of ethnicity is problematic because it turns identity into a commodity that can be bought and sold rather than something inherent to a person’s being. It also reinforces a consumerist mindset that places material possessions and consumption above cultural and social values.
Overall, the media’s portrayal of race significantly shapes societal perceptions of different racial groups. It is crucial to critically examine and challenge negative stereotypes to create a more equitable and just society.
Neoliberalism, Authoritarian Politics, and Media
Neoliberalism, an ideology stressing free markets, individualism, and privatization, has dramatically influenced media ownership and content (Phelan, 2018). In this profit-driven environment, media organizations prioritize market share above all else. In the meantime, authoritarian governments, like China, use the media to influence and control their populace and strengthen their power structures (Stochmann, 2013). Neoliberalism’s effects on society and the media’s role in moulding it are essential. Neoliberalism’s emergence has led to a move toward media consolidation and the emergence of media conglomerates. The commercialization of news and entertainment results from these vast media organizations’ preference for profit over the general population’s needs (Phelan, 2018). This trend has also caused media output to become homogenized, with consistent forms and material that appeal to the least prevalent denominator. Such developments have created challenges for media pluralism and democracy, as media organizations prioritize profit over diversity and civic participation.
Media studies from a feminist perspective aim to analyze how gender is constructed and reinforced through media texts. Gender and production refer to how the creation of media content is influenced by gender. As Thornham (2007) notes, it is essential to consider how gender roles and stereotypes may impact the production process. Another area of focus is the representation of women in media, which is explored through the images of women’s debate. This debate considers how women are depicted in media texts and how these representations may impact societal views and attitudes towards women.
Moreover, feminist media studies also examine how women audiences interact with media content. Contrary to the idea that women are passive consumers of media, gender and audiences research shows that women are active agents who engage with media texts in complex ways. This means that women audiences have the power to interpret, challenge, and resist gendered messages conveyed through media. Overall, feminist approaches to media studies aim to critically analyze and challenge the gendered norms and values that are embedded in media representations, production, and consumption.
Feminist academics maintain that media creation is a gendered process, emphasizing that women’s points of view and observations are frequently excluded because of their underrepresentation in the sector, as stated by Nasir et al. (2017). Additionally, gender-based power disparities may be seen in the media business, where women’s work is commonly underestimated and underpaid. Media organizations must address these issues and strive for more excellent representation of women in media production, as noted by feminist scholars. They stress that diversifying media teams and fostering an inclusive workplace may lessen the negative consequences of excluding women from media creation. The media sector must understand that gender parity is not just a moral need but also a prerequisite for creating media that authentically depicts and caters to a variety of viewers. To develop a more inclusive and equitable media environment, gendered power disparities within the media sector must be confronted.
‘Images of Women’ debates
Feminist media scholars have expressed their concern regarding the portrayal of women in media, criticizing it for upholding gender stereotypes and promoting the sexualization and objectification of women. According to Thornham (2007), media representations of women are often responsible for this narrow view of femininity, which excludes diversity and complexity. Feminist researchers have been advocating for a more comprehensive and nuanced representation of women in the media. They contend that the media sector ought to answer for encouraging a stereotypical portrayal of women. The variety of women’s experiences, viewpoints, and identities should be reflected in how women are portrayed in the media. This would support the advancement of gender equality and prevent the adverse effects of gender stereotypes. Thus, feminist media academics have urged increased visibility and representation of women from various origins in the media and increased diversity in the voices and viewpoints influencing media creation.
Gender and Audiences
Women’s studies scholars interested in women as media audiences have explored how audiences interact with media texts, debunking the assumption that audiences passively consume media content. Instead, these scholars have illuminated how audiences actively interpret and negotiate meaning from media texts. Moreover, feminist researchers have revealed that gendered norms and values often inform audience responses to media content. Gill and Gill’s (2007) work is particularly noteworthy in this field. In summary, feminist academics have emphasized the complex interactions between audiences, media, and gender, demonstrating how gendered power dynamics influence audiences’ perceptions of and reactions to media texts. Feminist researchers have improved our knowledge of how media influences cultural views regarding gender and how these attitudes promote how much media we consume via their incisive research.
Conclusion
In summary, feminist approaches to media studies have made significant advances in our knowledge of how gender, sexuality, and power relations both shape and are shaped by media. The approaches mentioned earlier have shown how important it is for media businesses to address gendered power disparities and to increase diversity and representation in media creation. In addition to challenging preconceived notions about audiences, feminist media researchers have demonstrated that viewers’ reactions to media material may be complicated and diversified.
References
Berry, D. (Ed.). (2013). Revisiting the Frankfurt School: Essays on culture, media and theory. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Castleberry, G. (2016). Understanding Stuart Hall’s ‘encoding/decoding model through TV’s ‘Breaking Bad’. Communication theory and millennial popular culture: Essays and applications, pp. 84–95.
Moss, M. (2012). The media and the models of masculinity. Lexington Books
Durham, M. G., & Kellner, D. M. (Eds.). (2012). Media and cultural studies: Keyworks. John Wiley & Sons.
Iqani, M. (2011). Consumer culture and the media. y IP address 192.168. 10.4 on 2022/07/12, 275.
Phelan, S. (2018). Neoliberalism and media. Sage.
Thornham, S. (2007). Women, feminism and media. Edinburgh University Press.
Gill, R., & Gill, R. M. (2007). Gender and the Media. Polity.
Nasir, N. I. S., McKinney de Royston, M., O’Connor, K., & Wischnia, S. (2017). Knowing about racial stereotypes versus believing them. Urban Education, 52(4), 491–524.
Popelková, A. (2014). Racial Stereotypes about Latin Americans in the US movies (Doctoral dissertation, Tesis de bachelor, Tesis y disertaciones. Universidad de Masaryk).
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