Introduction
Due to life’s increasing challenges and pressures, domestic violence is rampant in 21st-century society. According to the Istanbul conference, “domestic violence occurs within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrators share or have shared the same residence with the victim” (Di Napoli & Carnevale et al., 2019). The definition depicts that most domestic violence occurs at the victim’s residence, the family setting. Children are a product of the family unit and encounter the happenings and turn of events in the family setting. Therefore, children are exposed to or witness the happenings and the outcome of domestic violence. Research shows that childhood exposure or witnessing DV can lead to health problems, behavioral change, disgruntled relationships, and other issues that affect normal functioning (Carter & Parankothy et al., 2022). Therefore, the paper seeks to research an understanding of how witnessing domestic violence affects children. It will use literature from other scholars to elaborate on specific thematic areas that seek to answer the research question and provide a conclusion.
Background and Scope of the Study
Statistics show that domestic violence or intimate violence cases have increased. Research shows that more than one million domestic violence cases involving men and women are emotional, physical, verbal, and sexual violence (Quzounian, 2019). The Centers for disease control continue to record an annual increase in cases related to family violence. However, the paper focuses on the concerns raised on the number of children exposed to domestic violence. Often, domestic violence occurs at home, especially at the family level, and children are at risk of witnessing such acts against their parents, guardians, or someone closer to them. According to Blake Edwards, a psychologist, domestic violence has a 45% to 60% co-occurrence rate among children because they witness an average of 68% to 80% of violent acts (Edwards, 2019). The number is 15 times higher than the expected exposure rate, whether physical or other forms of violence. Olivia Harrison analyzed the UNICEF report that shows that children are becoming witnesses of abuse caused of the existing link between child abuse and domestic violence (Harrison, 2021). The report shows that more than 40% of abuse cases result from domestic violence. Thus, children are at risk of experiencing emotional, physical, and social development. Harrison highlights the effects of violence, including increased risk of depression, delinquency, violent behaviors, anxiety, and depression. Also, the effects impact the children’s future life that, including education, relationships, or participation in domestic violence acts in the future (Harrison, 2021). Therefore, there is a likelihood that the cycle of violent practice will re-occur in future generations.
Further, Terra Pingley acknowledges that domestic violence impacts children and increases the chance of them getting abused (Pingley, 2017). The author points out that the number of domestic violence cases reported to the Children Protection Services co-relates to the number of child abuse or threats to children’s safety. Thus, the children are at risk of harm at their homes, and the Child Protection Services are urged to take the children to safety or provide measures to reduce such acts at the family level. Therefore, the disorder caused by family wrangles and violence distracts the child’s stability by causing psychological effects. Further, Pingley highlights other effects that include withdrawal, impacts on emotional and cognitive development, anxiety, aggressiveness, and other disorders that depict a psychologically disturbed person. Research on data collected by the National Epidemiologic Survey shows that emotional neglect was the leading form of maltreatment experienced by children. Also, a meta-analysis survey has attributed the increase in maltreatment among children to having severe consequences, especially in undeveloped and developing countries (Pingley, 2017).
Tsavoussis and Stawicki et al. analyzed the case study of Ohio to analyze the scope and prevalence of DV and its impacts on children (Tsavoussis & Stawicki et al., 2014). The research found that more than 70000 classes were made to the authorities to report cases of DV between 2006 and 2011. The rising number of cases prompted the authorities to arrest more than 40000 perpetrators of the acts. During the arrests, more than 20000 children were rescued from the menace, and the number of DV cases dropped significantly. Further, the state enacted legislation, laws, policies, and enforcement as intervention methods toward solving the crisis. Therefore, Ohio DV cases and their impacts on children have reduced due to providing an economic environment for women, improvement in educational systems, demographic changes, and racial diversity due to population increase. According to Briggs-Gowan, and Estabrook et al., more than 6% of maltreatment cases target children aged five years and below (Briggs-Gowan & Estabrook et al., 2019). Notably, 20% of the same cases revolve around domestic violence at the family level. Often, the less severe forms of maltreatment, including spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, are prevalent. Research shows that spanking acts among children as a form of domestic violence account for at least 70%. Thus, the percentages represent the direct forms of domestic violence directed at children. Also, more than a third of the reported cases of DV are equal to the number of children who have faced domestic violence (Briggs-Gowan & Estabrook et al., 2019). Therefore, it is evident that DV impacts children, affecting their growth, psychological and physical development, education, relationships, and other life-threatening experiences.
Domestic Violence among Children and Age
Domestic violence’s effect on children varies with age at exposure time. Melissa Stiles categorizes the age span per the domestic violence impact (Stiles, 2022). The identified categories are infants, preschool children, school-aged children, and adolescents. The authors suggest infants are vulnerable during partner abuse because it disrupts the child’s attachment needs. Research shows that more than 50% of children in families with violence are prone to excessive crying, sleeping problems, and eating disorders. Also, young children can suffer injury in case of physical violence or lack of care when their mothers are chased away from home. On the other hand, preschool-aged children are aware of the happenings within the family. Thus, witnessing DV causes panic and may result in headaches, psychosomatic complaints, and abdominal pains. Often, they experience sleep disturbances, enuresis, and thumb sucking, which are signs of stress. Notably, preschool-aged child looks upon their parents for protection and guidance against emotional, psychological, and physical harm. Thus, subjection to DV causes insecurity, regular crying, whining, and clinging. Others may experience nightmares and depict signs of terror accompanied by irritability, yelling, hiding, and stuttering (Stiles, 2022).
Further, Stiles explains that DV can impact school-aged children’s everyday lives and operations. The children will likely develop health challenges, including abdominal pains, less peer interaction, poor educational performance, and reduced engagement in physical activities like sports. The extent of the DV impact affects school-aged children’s self-esteem and confidence in the future because of shame and guilt emanating from domestic violence experiences. On the other hand, adolescents have affected family wrangles and are likely to be drawn to side with either of the violent participants. Often, domestic violence shapes the child’s favoritism towards one part of the family because of the daily experiences. The children at this stage develop low self-esteem and regard to social life. Thus, they will likely participate in early sexual activity, antisocial behavior, drug abuse, and delinquency (Stiles, 2022). Therefore, witnessing domestic violence impacts each age span differently.
Domestic Witnessing impacts during childhood
Domestic violence impacts the entire life cycle of childhood and can extend to adulthood if unresolved. According to Pingley, “…physiological and physiological development of child witnesses of domestic violence are unending” (Pingley, 2017). The author suggests that the impacts of domestic violence start before the child is born when the mother is subjected to stress, also known as indirect experiences. Further, sensing or perceived threat to parents or caregivers is a stress that impacts a child’s emotional and behavioral outcome. Notably, children witnessing domestic violence will likely develop trauma that impacts their childhood development. Domestic violence can be witnessed directly or indirectly, depending on the type of violence taking place. Research by Ouzounian shows that any form of domestic violence witnessed by children, even if not directed to them, severely impacts their behavioral and emotional display at the time of the acts and later in their lives (Quzounian, 2019). Thus, children who do not experience the impacts instantly are silent witnesses or invisible trauma carriers who display the consequences of earlier experiences a later in their lives. Harrison opines that “as the child age, those who have been exposed to domestic violence may continue to show signs of problem…” (Harrison, 2021). The author acknowledges that witnessing domestic violence at a tender age impacts a child’s future concentration, school work, and behaviors. Harrison’s research shows that domestic violence impacts the individual’s emotional, physical, and social development after witnessing domestic violence. Also, 40% of the child becomes a perpetrator of violent acts when exposed to both domestic violence and child abuse (Harrison, 2021).
Inadequate Social Support, Self-Esteem, and Confidence
Research shows that children who witness domestic violence experience inadequate social support (Quzounian, 2019). Parents are often expected to facilitate their children in fully realizing their abilities and gaining confidence. Domestic violence distracts the attention meant for children to solving other domestic issues, including wrangles. Children are left disgruntled with minimum intervention from guardians, older siblings, or parents to bring the best out of them. Further, the children become socially withdrawn when faced with issues threatening their peace and safety. Thus, they become cold in interactions and engagement with the public and hence withdraw from social interaction.
Further, research shows that the self-esteem and confidence of children witnessing or witnessing domestic violence are relatively low. The low self-efficacy and low self-worthy are products of histories related to domestic violence. Notably, they are likely to feel shame, embarrassment, guilt, and humiliation whenever they encounter a scenario that reminds them of their past. According to Edwards’s psychological research, domestic violence makes caregivers unresponsive or unavailable to attend to the children’s emotional needs (Edwards, 2019). Thus the children’s development process is characterized by fear, indecisiveness, and unresolved emotions. The psychologist attributes the re-occurrence of childhood memories to the neurons’ firing pattern that gives rise to emotion, attention, and memories. Therefore, continuous exposure to similar situations evokes a memory that impacts a child’s self-esteem, confidence, and social pattern or a witness of domestic violence. Pingley says children depend on caregivers for safety and guidance (Pengley, 2017). Thus, caregiving should be provided in a non-violent environment that allows the children to enjoy care from their caregivers. The children should experience support, love, nurturance, and the development of good relationships and bond with the family members.
Post-Traumatic Stress
Trauma acquired during childhood is transferable to the future and impacts an individual’s lifestyle. According to Ouzounian, witnessing or exposure to violence leads to the development of post-traumatic stress (Quzounian, 2019). For example, a grown-up may fear darkness or fire because of childhood experiences. Often, adolescents are prone to post-traumatic issues because of the fresh memories of their experiences during childhood. Harrison opines that children witnessing domestic acts experience elevated levels of stress that cause cognitive malfunctioning. Thus, the behaviors of the young ones, especially adolescents, change, and some indulge in substance abuse. Others experience a lack of sleep, emotional stress, immaturity, fear of being alone, and communication challenges (Harrison, 2021). Research shows that chronic stress causes cause health problems that impact cognitive development and causes depression, ulcers, mental disorders, and other illnesses. Therefore, children’s exposure to stressful conditions, including domestic violence, must be reduced (Pengley, 2017). According to Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki et al., post-traumatic stress impacts cognitive structure and functioning. The cognitive impacts cause changes and adjustments in behavioral patterns and stress responses among children witnessing domestic violence. Notably, the early stages of a child’s brain are vulnerable to microenvironment influences, including parents, homes, schools, etcetera. Thus, children exposed to an unfavorable environment pick what is presented to them and act as their character to adulthood. Small room for change exists when an individual has grown (Tsavoussis & Stawicki, 2014). According to Elizabeth Plumptre, the impacts of post-traumatic stress can cause damage to the developing brain hence causing changes in sleep patterns, nightmares, and concentration (Plumptre, 2021).
Future Attachment Patterns
Notably, children with a background of domestic experience attachment challenges because of significant stress obtained in their childhood. The psychological stress caused by domestic violence lessens their interest in intimate relationships, the development of families, and the building of friendships with other people in the outside world (Quzounian, 2019). Often, their behaviors are characterized by anxiety, mood swings, and stress, especially when nearing a point of attachment. Also, domestic violence causes an emotional imbalance that causes unpredictable aggression, fights, and fighting habits with little provocation. Further, the witnesses of domestic violence cannot cope with changes quickly because they still hold back on past experiences. They are associated with anger, poor coping skills, and sadness, which makes them lose interest in changing their behaviors for the better. Instead, children witnessing domestic violence are likely to intervene, participate, or side with one of the parties in the wrangles. Pengley highlights that children develop insecure attachments when exposed to violence and start avoiding caregivers. The behavior is a product of what they witness during domestic violence, causing them to develop cold feet toward their caregivers. During exposure to domestic violence, the children miss learning about self-soothing, which is significant in promoting self-control. Thus, they will likely participate in any activity that makes them feel well (Pingeley, 2017). Also, Chastain’s research shows that the parents’ attentiveness to the child is significant to a child’s growth, emotional intelligence, and development. However, domestic violence distracts parents from attending to their children (Chastain, 2004). Therefore, domestic violence is a deterring factor in developing a solid background for children to prepare for a harmonious future.
Intergenerational
Children’s exposure to domestic violence creates a habit transferable to the next generations. According to Harrison, “there is a strong likelihood that this pattern of abuse will become a continuing cycle of violence for the next generations (Harrison, 2021). The upbringing of children determines their future character and behaviors. According to the author, children born witnessing domestic violence will likely become victims or perpetrators of the acts. For example, boys are likely to copy their father’s way of treating their mothers and apply it to their partners. Edward opines that children may witness parents fond of domestic violence being insensitive to their children’s presence during the act (Edwards, 2019).
Further, the caregivers or parents are likely to extend violent acts to their children, especially adolescents. It happens through erratic punishments, severe beatings, and a lack of consideration for the children’s needs. Thus, children pick the details of the experience and are likely to apply the same in future interactions and relationships with their families. According to Pengley, acknowledge that children who have witnessed domestic violence develop negativity towards parenthood, which impacts their future choices in building an intimate relationship.
In some cases, children have abandoned or abused their caregivers because of the perception acquired from witnessing domestic violence (Pangley, 2017). Research by Forke and Catallozi et al. shows that witnessing domestic violence impacts children’s compassion levels in the future. The author identifies that the witnesses’ ability to build a good relationship and care for their loved ones, offspring, or persons of the opposite gender is significantly impacted (Forke & Catallozi et al., 2019)
Conclusion
The literature research and discussion on individual thematic areas show that witnessing domestic violence affects a child’s immediate and later life experiences. The impact prolongs throughout the life of the child. Studies show that even an unborn child experiences stress when the mother is subjected to domestic violence. The act impacts the child’s physical, psychological, behavioral, social, and emotional. Thus it can be summarized that it affects the whole being of a child and their future activities and involvement. It is significant to ensure that children are protected from witnessing domestic violence. Also, measures should be implemented to reduce domestic violence in the family unit. Therefore, children will grow in a conducive microenvironment free from the toxic impacts of domestic violence and environments that expose them or make them vulnerable.
Annotated Bibliography
Ouzounian, Z. (2019). Childhood Witnessing of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Character Development Across Time and Adulthood Relationships (Doctoral dissertation, Antioch University). https://aura.antioch.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1592&context=etds
The research article is a thesis and a dissertation that surveys children witnessing domestic violence. The article aims to identify and discuss the impacts of domestic violence on the character development of children in their life. Notably, the article considers the intergenerational concepts that research the impacts of domestic violence in adulthood and the formulation of future relationships. Therefore, the article is credible for research on the effects of witnessing domestic violence on children.
Edwards, B. G. (2019). Alarming effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence. Psychology Today. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/progress-notes/201902/alarming-effects-childrens-exposure-domestic-violence
The article is a reviewed psychology submission of Blake Edward, a licensed marriage and family therapist. The author highlights the increase in the number of children exposed to DV and its impact on their psychology and health. Notably, the article analyzes several impacts of DV on children and the measure of control needed to control the epidemic. Also, it explains the cognitive impacts of DV on children and how it slows brain functioning and child operations.
Harrison, O. (2021). Statistically Speaking: The Long-Term Effects of Domestic Violence on Children. Child. Legal Rts. J., pp. 41, 63. https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1232&context=clrj
The research journal by Olivia Harrison is significant in analyzing the long-term effects of domestic violence on children. Its analysis is based on the UNICEF report, case illustration, and the Capstone research project. Its ability to use other materials or reports proves its credibility for consideration in research. Further, the research identifies possible significant solutions to addressing domestic violence issues.
Pingley, T. (2017). The impact of witnessing domestic violence on children: A systematic review. https://sophia.stkate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1779&context=msw_papers
The article is a clinical research paper that analyzes the impacts of witnessing domestic violence. Notably, it provides a systematic review of literature that elaborates on the scope of domestic violence and its impacts. The paper classifies the impacts into themes that touch on emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and multi-level perspectives. Thus, its broad scope of analysis and provision of elaborative analysis makes it significant for use in addressing issues between domestic violence and children.
Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki, S. P., Stoicea, N., & Papadimos, T. J. (2014). Child-witnessed domestic violence and its adverse effects on brain development: a call for societal self-examination and awareness. Frontiers in public health, pp. 2, 178. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00178/full
The article is a perspective paper that captures the views of several authors specializing in health, especially brain development. According to the authors, domestic violence impacts children’s psychology, which is found in the central nervous system. The article depicts that the continuous impacts of domestic violence affect society’s growth and functionality because of the existence of people with challenges. It focuses on the biological and psychological alterations in children. Lastly, it highlights the legal and political system for addressing domestic violence.
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Estabrook, R., Henry, D., Grasso, D. G., Burns, J., McCarthy, K. J., … & Wakschlag, L. S. (2019). Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 100–111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213418302461
The research article involves the study data on domestic violence obtained from mother-report data that reflects the impacts of harsh parenting. Thus, it uses data from two large communities with good social and economic backgrounds and ethical diversity. The research provides the relationship between harsh parenting and children’s change of behavioral, social, and emotional patterns. Therefore, it is significant for research because it provides insights into family settings with conflicts.
Stiles, M. (2022). Witnessing domestic violence: The effect on children. American Family Physician, 66(11), 2052. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/1201/p2052.html
Melissa Stiles is a physician highlighting the effects of witnessing domestic violence on children. The article is significant in the research because it provides information on how the impact varies with age. Notably, younger children categorized as preschool-aged children are susceptible to the impacts of domestic violence more than adolescents. It also provides the thematic areas of impact by the epidemic by highlighting areas of interest that include behavioral, cognitive, and emotional effects. The article is credible for research because of the age-span classification thematic area.
Plumptre, E. (2021, November 17). How witnessing domestic violence affects children. Verywell Mind. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940
The medically reviewed article provides insights into the effects of witnessing domestic violence. It described the basics or description of the victims or witnesses of domestic violence. It highlights the long and short-term effects of witnessing domestic families within the thematic areas of social, emotional, physical, and psychological. Also, it advocates the ways that can be utilized to protect children from harm. Other areas addressed by the article are the long-term and short-term impacts and post-traumatic stress disorders.
Chastain, J. (2004). How Does Witnessing Domestic Violence Affect a Child’s Academic and Behavioral Performance at School? https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1097&context=theses
The article is a thesis that seeks to address the impacts of witnessing domestic violence on children’s behaviors and academics. It addressed the impacts of the epidemic on children’s cognitive development, hence impacting education. The article is rich in the literature on the background study that elaborates on the scope of witnessing domestic violence among children. Further, it analyzes the destructive behaviors associated with the impacts of children witnessing domestic violence.
Forke, C. M., Catallozzi, M., Localio, A. R., Grisso, J. A., Wiebe, D. J., & Fein, J. A. (2019). Intergenerational effects of witnessing domestic violence: Health of the witnesses and their children. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100942. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301160
The article is a medical report focusing on the future of children exposed to domestic violence. Notably, the article reports on the situation or the livelihoods of the adults who witnessed domestic violence in their childhood. Also, it analyzes the health of the children witnessing domestic violence, including that of the children who live under parents exposed to DV in their early years. Therefore, the paper is significant in predicting the possible outcome of continued exposure of children to domestic violence.
Di Napoli, I., Procentese, F., Carnevale, S., Esposito, C., & Arcidiacono, C. (2019). Ending intimate partner violence (IPV) and locating men at stake: An ecological approach. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(9), 1652. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/9/1652
The article provides an ecological approach to solving intimate partner violence, a form of domestic violence. It acknowledges the existing effects of conflict among partners and the need to provide solutions to the epidemic. Thus, it examines violence and provides intervention methods that touch on relationships, individuals, communities, and organizations. Therefore, the article is significant because it highlights the reasons that prompt the intervention mechanism, answering the research question on the effects of witnessing conflicts.
Carter, B., Paranjothy, S., Davies, A., & Kemp, A. (2022). Mediators and effect modifiers of the causal pathway between child exposure to domestic violence and internalizing behaviors among children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(2), 594-604. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838020965964
The article review provides the modified mediators that act as pathways between the behaviors exhibited by children witnessing domestic violence. It analyzes the pathways that include the family, individuals, and the community that facilitate the impacts on children. The macro environment is a significant factor that influences the increase or reduction of domestic violence cases. Thus, the article is significant in providing the framework for research.
References
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Estabrook, R., Henry, D., Grasso, D. G., Burns, J., McCarthy, K. J., … & Wakschlag, L. S. (2019). Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 87, 100–111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213418302461
Carter, B., Paranjothy, S., Davies, A., & Kemp, A. (2022). Mediators and effect modifiers of the causal pathway between child exposure to domestic violence and internalizing behaviors among children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(2), 594-604. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1524838020965964
Chastain, J. (2004). How Does Witnessing Domestic Violence Affect a Child’s Academic and Behavioral Performance at School? https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1097&context=theses
Di Napoli, I., Procentese, F., Carnevale, S., Esposito, C., & Arcidiacono, C. (2019). Ending intimate partner violence (IPV) and locating men at stake: An ecological approach. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(9), 1652. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/9/1652
Edwards, B. G. (2019). Alarming effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence. Psychology Today. Retrieved February 18, 2023, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/progress-notes/201902/alarming-effects-childrens-exposure-domestic-violence
Forke, C. M., Catallozzi, M., Localio, A. R., Grisso, J. A., Wiebe, D. J., & Fein, J. A. (2019). Intergenerational effects of witnessing domestic violence: Health of the witnesses and their children. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100942. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301160
Harrison, O. (2021). Statistically Speaking: The Long-Term Effects of Domestic Violence on Children. Child. Legal Rts. J., pp. 41, 63. https://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1232&context=clrj
Ouzounian, Z. (2019). Childhood Witnessing of Domestic Violence and Its Impact on Character Development Across Time and Adulthood Relationships (Doctoral dissertation, Antioch University). https://aura.antioch.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1592&context=etds
Pingley, T. (2017). The impact of witnessing domestic violence on children: A systematic review. https://sophia.stkate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1779&context=msw_papers
Plumptre, E. (2021, November 17). How witnessing domestic violence affects children. Verywell Mind. Retrieved February 19, 2023, from https://www.verywellmind.com/the-impact-of-domestic-violence-on-children-5207940
Stiles, M. (2022). Witnessing domestic violence: The effect on children. American Family Physician, 66(11), 2052. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2002/1201/p2052.html
Tsavoussis, A., Stawicki, S. P., Stoicea, N., & Papadimos, T. J. (2014). Child-witnessed domestic violence and its adverse effects on brain development: a call for societal self-examination and awareness. Frontiers in public health, pp. 2, 178. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00178/full
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