Critically evaluate how the empirical study of the brain reward system has contributed to our understanding of addiction.
An addiction to alcohol or drugs is a multi-step process that has repercussions for the individual and society as a whole (Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). There has been an increase in the number of people concerned about why people continue to engage in various forms of addiction despite the different social, legal, medical, and financial implications. Researchers have looked at the brain’s reward system to contribute to the scientific knowledge of addiction. This paper will critically analyze how the empirical research on the reward system in the brain has contributed to our understanding of addiction. In this paper, we will explore how an empirical study indicates a connection between addiction and brain reward, as well as describe the two essential ideas that will be covered: the Brain Reward system and addiction. At the end of the paper, a description of how the brain’s reward system helps understand addiction will be given.
According to Tomkins and Sellers (2001), drug addiction is a biopsychosocial condition characterized by the recurrent use of drugs or repetitive involvement, notwithstanding the harm produced by the behaviour. In other words, drug addicts are compulsive drug users. According to Pinel, John, and Steven (2017), people who are addicted to drugs use drugs regularly, but not all people who use drugs regularly are addicted. As highlighted, the most recent developments in scientific research have led to a better understanding of the neurological process that underlies addiction. A study by Agrawal and Lynskey (2008) investigates the extent to which genetic factors play a role in developing drug use problems. There was some evidence in the study that pointed to a moderate to high genetic connection with addiction. The findings also suggest that the environment, a person’s genetic makeup, and the relationships between the two factors are essential in understanding addiction (Blum et al., 2000).
Despite this, there is much confusion about what exactly addiction is, as Pinel, John, and Steven all point out (2017). Many believe that people addicted to drugs are caught in an endless cycle of taking drugs, experiencing withdrawal symptoms, and finding ways to cope. Despite this, the narrative about drug addiction does not square the available empirical facts. According to Pinel, John, and Steven Barnes (2017), some people may take medicines to prevent some of the withdrawal symptoms they experience.
Pinel, John, and Steven’s (2017) definition of the reward system is a collection of neural pathways and brain structures responsible for reward-related cognition, such as associative learning, incentive salience, such as a craving for a reward, and positively valenced emotions. This collection of neural pathways and brain structures is responsible for reward-related cognition. From an evolutionary point of view, Tomkins and Sellers (2001) define the brain reward circuit as the mechanism that assures survival by giving precedence to aspects such as reproduction. This is another definition of the brain reward circuit. However, according to Tomkins and Sellers (2001), substances that result in behavioural impacts differ from other compounds. Nevertheless, these compounds all have one thing in common: they are all regulated similarly by the brain’s reward system, which plays a crucial role in maintaining and initiating actions necessary for survival.
Pinel, John, and Steven (2017) note that incentives are seen as both wanted and liked. These two concepts, although seemingly equivalent, are mediated differently by the brain. Incentive salience, also known as desire, is created by the more extensive brain circuits and contains mesolimbic dopamine. In comparison, “liking” emerges from frail and smaller brain circuits that are not dependent on dopamine. Conferring to the incentive-sensitization hypothesis, drug addiction posits the excessive amplification of “wanting” without the amplification of the psychological amplification of “liking (Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). (Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). ” This originates from the long-lasting dopamine systems sensitive to brain sensitization.
Numerous empirical research has demonstrated the link between addiction and brain reward. The findings of Pinel, John, and Steven (2017) add to the research by proposing that the joyful sense of highness is the pull to drug usage. Highness is a feeling that results from electromagnetic stimulation in specific brain locations that are collectively referred to as the reward centre. The substantia nigra (SN), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and ventral tegmental area (VTA), all of which are located near the frontal section of the brain, are the regions in question. The neurotransmitter that is responsible for electrical stimulation is called dopamine. Early drug usage was associated with significant sensations of reward and pleasure, which encouraged users to continue using drugs. This is a factor that contributes to the neurophysiological cycle of addiction. According to Tomkins and Sellers (2001), substances of abuse exert an influence over the brain’s pathway either through a direct influence on the dopamine system of the brain or by affecting the activities of other neurotransmitters to exert a modulatory impact over the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway. Both of these mechanisms are aimed at exerting an influence over the pathway. Based on a study conducted by Agrawal and Lynskey (2008), drug addiction may be linked to an individual’s need for novel experiences and a gene that codes for a dopaminergic receptor and contributes to the development of a reward dependent. According to Blum et al. (2000), the persistent demand for reward is a driving force behind both alcoholism and the addition of other psychoactive drugs.
In a variety of different ways, the brain’s reward system helps our comprehension of the disease of addiction. According to Pinel, John, and Steven (2017), education has traditionally been linked to both rewards and penalties. The concept of positive reinforcements originated within the framework of the operant conditioning paradigm. According to the positive reinforcement hypothesis, behavioural responses can be enhanced through the use of rewards and by the repetition of behaviour (Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). As a result, the acute sensation that results from being intoxicated by a drug promotes a rapid and powerful learning response by connecting the drug with emotions of pleasure. As a result, the individual resorts to using drugs more frequently and in greater quantities in order to experience the same levels of pleasure and satisfaction (Blum et al., 2000).
According to the findings of the research project on brain reward and addiction, the neurotransmitter system appears to play an important part in the manifestation of drug dependency. According to Tomkins and Sellers (2001), the breakthroughs assist scientists understand the underlying cause of drug dependence, which is helpful in establishing effective treatment techniques. Additionally, the advances enable scientists to build more effective treatment tactics. After the behavior has been beginning or finished, the dopamine overflow that results from the mood-altering medications does not stop; the yearning for the reward with the drug continues to occur, which results in repetitive, compulsive use. The usage of the medicine for an extended period of time decreases the number of dopamine receptors, which is detrimental to the process of regulating the amount of dopamine that is released in the brain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for rewarding and pleasurable experiences. Dopamine can also be utilized biologically to encourage life-sustaining actions such as drinking water when thirsty by providing a pleasurable sensation that is necessary for the behavior. One example of this is when dopamine is used to promote drinking water when thirsty (Agrawal & Lynskey, 2008). On the other hand, mood-altering medications and alcohol produce an artificial effect that is more intense than the benefits that come from natural sources. According to Pinel, John, and Steven (2017), the majority of drugs that are routinely misused produce a neurochemical reaction in the brain that causes an increase in the amount of dopamine that is released by neurons in the reward region of the brain. The high that one experiences can be attributed to an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Decreased brain dopamine receptors contribute to addiction in two separate ways. Pinel, John, and Steven (2017) state that impulsive conduct is caused by a lack of dopamine receptors, which in turn increases the need for drug self-medication. A study by Agrawal and Lynskey (2008) on the dopaminergic mechanism regulating nicotine’s effects found that inhibiting dopamine results in a compensatory increase in smoking rather than a decrease. Other neurotransmitter systems that can mimic the same reception include cholinergic and opioid systems (Agrawal & Lynskey, 2008). The inability to take pleasure in things that once brought you joy has also been related to a lack of dopamine receptors. Those with low self-esteem or poor impulse control are more likely to give drugs a try in an attempt to alleviate their feelings of depression. Pinel, John, and Steven (2017) found that chronic drug use reduces grey matter in the prefrontal cortex, which in turn impairs one’s ability to exercise self-control. This, in turn, has an impact on the person’s capacity for rational thought and reduction of executive function. The prefrontal cortex’s normal role, which is to manage the brain’s reward system, can be altered by chronic drug use.
A better understanding of the workings and functions of the brain’s reward system, as well as the part that dopamine receptors play, has led to advances in the treatment of compulsive behaviors and addictions (Agrawal & Lynskey, 2008). Clinicians make use of dopamine antagonists and agonists, which function similarly to skeleton keys in that they either begin analogous keys that result in a similar response to dopamine or shut down any response that was launched by dopamine. This reduces the intensity of the pleasurable responses, which in turn reduces desires, and ultimately leads to the elimination of the learning association.
There are doubts about the reliability of the study’s results. The majority of studies examining the role of dopamine in intracranial self-stimulation have been carried out on nonhuman primates. Animals participating in the clinical trial injected medications into their bodies via implanted cannulas using a drug self-administration paradigm. The animals quickly develop drug dependence after learning how to inject themselves (Agrawal & Lynskey, 2008: Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). Animals were frequently dosed with a medication in a controlled environment to condition their preferences. It was determined how much time the drug-free animal spent in the drug compartment vs the time it spent in the visually distinguishable control container during the testing period (Pinel, John, and Steven, 2017). Individuals favored the drug group above the control group. Animal testing’s reliability is dubious because of the ever-changing nature of the brain’s complex neurological networks. Consequently, they successfully communicate and adapt to their surroundings. In addition, the human body is itself a complex system, made up of subsystems that can be understood only with a comprehensive understanding of the whole. Because of this, the use of nonhumans to research complicated human systems has a limited amount of credibility. Last but not least, the genetic makeup of humans has a role in how complex systems work, thus adjusting the starting point can affect the results.
In conclusion, the understanding of substance dependence that has been brought about by advancements in biology and neurology has allowed for the creation of an appropriate treatment strategy. In many regions of the world, drug addiction is still a major problem that has to be addressed. Tobacco, narcotic painkillers, cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol are the drugs that are used the most frequently. The earlier biopsychology research concentrated on physical dependency, which did not satisfy the treatment goals. As a consequence, scientific research into the role of the brain reward system and how it has contributed to a new understanding of addiction was developed. The dopamine system is an essential component in the addictive behavior of a person. The mesocorticolimbic pathway is home to the vast majority of the brain regions that are involved in the process of self-stimulation. In addition, research has shown that engaging in intracranial self-stimulation is connected with higher amounts of dopamine production within the mesocorticolimbic circuit. Dopamine agonists are currently being utilized in several addiction treatment protocols in order to increase intracranial self-stimulation. Dopamine antagonists, on the other hand, reduce the amount of self-stimulatory behavior.
References
Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2019). Are there genetic influences on addiction: evidence from family, adoption and twin studies. Addiction, 103(7), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02213.x
Blum, K., Braverman, E. R., Holder, J. M., Lubar, J. F., Monastra, V. J., Miller, D., Lubar, J. O., Chen, T. J. H., & Comings, D. E. (2018). The Reward Deficiency Syndrome: A Biogenetic Model for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Impulsive, Addictive and Compulsive Behaviors. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32(sup1), 1–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2000.10736099
Tomkins, D. M., & Sellers, E. M. (2018). Addiction and the brain: the role of neurotransmitters in the cause and treatment of drug dependence. Cmaj, 164(6), 817-821. https://www.cmaj.ca/content/164/6/817.short
Wig, G. S., Barnes, S. J., & Pinel, J. P. J. (2017). Conditioning of a flavor aversion in rats by amygdala kindling. Behavioral Neuroscience, 116(2), 347–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.116.2.347
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