Introduction
1821 saw the Greeks revolt against the Ottoman Empire, a significant event that started the Greek War of Independence (Hatzis, 2019, pp. 838-839). The movement, inspired by the ancient Greeks’ spirit, developed strongly over the course of the 19th century. Multiple factors, including romanticism and liberalism, along with political and intellectual leaders such as Adamantios Korais, contributed to the Greek fight for independence. During this era, Greek nationalism was primarily distinctive in its strong focus on freedom and independence. The creation of a separate political structure for Greece would provide direct representation in international affairs and independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks’ unique cultural background, language, and bond to their past made them exceptional. This sense of a shared heritage provided a powerful source of inspiration for Greek nationalists. Furthermore, the Greek Orthodox Church represented a unifying factor for the Greeks, helping Greek nationalists to move beyond tribal and local rivalries. Greek Nationalism in 1821 rests on a synthesis of ancient history, republican ideas, and religious thought, reflecting the diverse historical experience of the Greek people (Hatzis, 2019, pp. 840-841). This research essay seeks to explore the development of Greek nationalism during the War of Independence and analyse its impact on the struggle for liberation from the Ottoman Empire.
Historical Overview
Greece’s history before the independence movement is characterised by foreign invasions and occupations. The Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman Empires ruled the country, which led to a loss of cultural and political identity. Despite this, Greek identity persisted through the Orthodox Church, language, and culture. Greeks saw themselves as the inheritors of ancient Greece, and this sentiment was reinforced by the Church, which emphasised the continuity of Greek civilisation.
The 6th of January 1833 marked the incorporation of a new Christian kingdom into the Western international system. Almost 12 years after the war began, the newly independent Greek state introduced their new leader-“Bavarian-born King Otto” (Beaton, 2020, p.55). The young king inherited the state built by the Great Powers through the Protocol of London, signed in February 1830. The poleis, as the city-states were called, multiplied during the start of the Classical era in Greece. Land and resources were continuously fought over by these fiercely independent city-states. Powerful states like Athens, Sparta, and Thebes emerged in this time frame. The city-states of Ancient Greece included Athens, Sparta and Thebes, which played prominent roles in its history, but only Thebes was destroyed by Macedonians in 335 BCE.
Athens gained power during the Classical period due to Solon’s reforms. The aristocracy’s power was diminished while common people gained more rights due to these reforms (Kitromilides, 2021). Athens experienced a democratic period until Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE. Athens’ most prominent cultural achievement during this time was the Acropolis, a vast temple complex devoted to the gods of Greece. Sparta’s military technology and tactics advancements placed it as the most powerful military force in Ancient Greece while located in the Peloponnese region. A small group of people controlled the state in Sparta’s version of government called oligarchy. This form of government was to later be criticised by Aristotle in his Politics.
The Classical era experienced significant progress in art and architecture. Sculpture, most notably of the Parthenon, flourished, as did theatrical works. Works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were shown in theatres that were made permanent. Advancements made by painters and potters during this era led to the Renaissance and other art movements to come. The end of the Classical Greek period occurred in 323 BCE upon the demise of Alexander the Great. His successors split his empire following his death. After Alexander the Great’s death, the Greek era ended, and Rome rose to power, later taking over Greece in the late 2nd century BCE.
Through the Greek War of Independence, the Greek people were able to overthrow Ottoman rule and be independent again in 1821(Mazower, 2021). Greek rebels rose up in protest numerous times prior to the war, but each rebellion was met with suppression. 1821 was the year when a group of Greek revolutionaries led by an Orthodox priest named Theodore Kolokotronis brought an end to Ottoman control over several Greek cities. The Greeks began their fight for independence with this event. For nine years, the Greeks, Russians, British, and French Empires battled the Ottomans. The Treaty of Constantinople recognised the victorious Greeks in 1832, which led to the establishment of modern-day Greece (Just,2016, pp.72-73). The Greeks remained under foreign domination even after achieving victory until World War II.
Hobsbawm, Anderson and Gellner Theory Overview of Nationalism
The majority of theories contend that nationalism is an effect of modernity. This theory is supported by academics like Erick Hobsbawm, Benedict Anderson, and Ernest Gellner, who link contemporary circumstances to nationalism. These ideas, however, ignore history and need to elucidate how the general populace contributes to nation-building. Greece serves as a case study for Anthony Smith’s ethno-symbolic theory.
Similarly to Smith, Benedict Anderson in Imagined Communities is also interested in symbolic aspects of nationalism. He claims that nationalism, similarly to religion, is understood as a destiny rather than a choice. The factors influencing ‘imagined communities’ were print and capitalism, creating modern vernaculars. Anderson points out that European nationalism was largely language-based. For instance, philological studies developed dictionaries and grammar: Modern Greek, Romanian, Ukrainian, Finnish, and cetra. One of the main arguments in Imagined Communities is the ability of nationalism to take the role of the institutions that are in decline- for instance, religion or political influence of the enlightenment. According to him, nation-states are imagined communities that enable individuals from diverse backgrounds to create a shared identity and unified goal. Also, he investigates the function of language, media, and culture in shaping a united national identity, underscoring the importance of symbols, rituals, and monuments in sustaining that identity.
There is a wealth of academic literature on nationalism and the nation. However, engaging with the theoretical framework is vital to advance in understanding Greece nationalism. The vast nationalism theories’ concepts and idealistic principles expedite the study of historical examples. Anthony Smith argues in Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism that nationalism cannot be created and requires the pre-existing presence of “ethnic” to oppose the above-mentioned view that connects nationalism to contemporary developments (Smith, 2009, p.43-44). Nationalists employ ceremonies, public rites, and the arts to create a unified “country.” Indeed, forming a country and nationalism is ongoing (Smith, 2009, p.44-46). Smith does not deny a degree of the invention during a nation’s formation. However, unlike Hobsbawm, he argues that the invention of a nation must be based on an existing ethnicity. Ethno-symbolism considers a nation’s historical background and uses it as a basis for empirical research (Kaufman, 2011, p.208). Finally, ethno-symbolism considers nations a by-product of social integration developed by symbolic practices.
Other Scholars’ views concerning Greek and Nationalism.
The matter of considerable debate and contention amongst academics and scholars is the relationship between Greek nationalism and identity. The study of Greek nationalism has witnessed the emergence of new approaches with the changing views on identity and the nation-state. Kofos’ views on the role of nationalism within the Greek Empire have contributed a unique perspective to the scholarship (Roudometof, 1996, pp.253-255). Post-Ottoman Empire, Greece experienced dissipation and disorientation, according to Kofos’ theory of redefined identity. He regards the multiple national identities of Greece as only recent and thus ruminates on how they were nonetheless expressed through collective actions and identities, including the process of constructing nationhood. He thus stresses rather than full national integration. He prefers to focus on the potential of collective identity expressed through complex forms of interaction between communities.
Kofos suggests that a significant element of the Greek nation is the idea of communal relations and organic cultural expression, namely through shared symbolic resources such as language (Roudometof, 1996, pp.256-259). In this, Kofos views nations as transcending macro-level identities such as those assigned by priests or rulers, though he emphasises that tensions between centres of power remain nonetheless. By extension, he perceives nations as entities which can arise from smaller identity affinities and that cultural identity does not need to be fixed like those imposed through Orthodoxy or the Ottoman monarchy. This is characterised by the traditional loyalties in Greek culture that venerated historical figures worshipped in the form of icons at shrines such as on Mount Athos. This suggests that aspects of culture that discerned a greater inclusiveness of different communities could promote a sense of nationhood, although only as a secondary factor.
As such, Kofos focused largely on the factor of socio-economic change which would be brought about by increased levels of literacy and communication enabled by urbanisation. He instead suggested that the material or infrastructural bases of nations were a much more decided factor in the developing nation-hood. This specifically shifted notions of the nation away from the ideological, as had been held and emphasised by Hobsbawm, Anderson and Gellner, to that of a drive of material progress, or ‘making the nation’. Hence, Kofos maintained that “modern Greek nationalism must be understood in the context of the larger processes of making nationhood rather than in terms of establishing the existence and purity of a monolithic Greek nation.”
Ben-Ami focused on the Hellenic language’s growth and its interconnections among diverse local groups. He identified the role which Greek played during the peak of Ottoman rule, noting that it served as a unifying identity (especially between prominent Greek-speaking communities based in the urban centres). He additionally noted that the spoken and written language, which had previously served an aristocratic purpose, become an essential part of nationalist identity in its later millennia, largely owing to its resonance with ancient Greek-era mythology and literature and, as such, its role in developing nationalism was pronounced (Yanoulopoulos, 2009 pp.2-5). He also, however, notes that beyond its linguistic links, shared religion played quite a significant role in the establishment of the unification of the Greek nation. He identified that the spread of formalised education enabled by the Kodikas bibliotha (Library of Books) was a significant factor in the spread of Orthodoxy, which was itself used as a tool of cultural and social unification. Seen as an expanding organism, the nation’s components of identity expanded for a national identity larger than itself, according to Ben-Ami.
In comparison to the former theorists, the works of Kofos largely differ in the views of nationalism with regard to its role in the nation-building process. He maintains that the idea of nationhood has moved from a singular ‘organic’ construction to a much more decentralised, regional formula which is grown from within. Hobsbawm, Anderson and Gellner suggested the imposition of national identity on a populace, unlike Kofos.
Contrarily, Ben-Ami’s work echoes earlier considerations of Anderson and Gellner’s ideas concerning the role of language and mythology. Like them, he identifies the framing of Greek identity as founded upon the mythological and linguistic narrative of Greece as a way of strengthening collective national identity and fostering pride in a unified national identity.
Factors that Influenced Greek Nationalism
Greek Nationalism and Byzantine Imperial Ideology
Greek nationalism originated from the Greeks’ shared desire to revive the Byzantine Empire’s glory and restore their ancient homeland. This ethno-symbolic approach to nationalism was largely advocated by Anthony Smith (1999) and Thanos Koulos, a sociologist from Erasmus University Rotterdam. A concept referred to by Smith as the ‘motherland,’ the land from which each community considered their ancestors originated, was integral to creating a sense of national pride and identity for Greek people (Williams and Smith, 1983, pp. 502–503). This sentiment was especially influential during the Greek independence movement and helped generate the notion of a unified Greek identity (Koulos, 2021, p.488).
Greek nationalism was a response to foreign rule and was shaped by identity and politics during Medieval Greece. The idea of a “Pan-Hellenic” nation, one united in language and culture, was expressed in literature produced during this period and gradually developed over time. Within this “Pan-Hellenic” idea, Greeks laid down core shared ideologies in terms of their own identities – in terms of their language, culture, and political system. The Acropolis became a symbol of Greek unity.
The Byzantine Empire’s unique cultural blend helped unify the Greeks in art, architecture, law, and religion. The Byzantine Empire, originating in 330 CE by the Roman emperor Constantine, was recognised for its distinct blend of classical Roman, Christian, and Eastern cultures (Moles, 1969). Byzantine Greeks found cultural unity through art, architecture, law, religion, and the empire. The Byzantine Empire’s reign involved acquiring large territories in the Mediterranean, Middle East, and Eastern Europe and transforming it into a noteworthy force in that area (Adrachtas, 2001). By incorporating Eastern religious and cultural customs, the Byzantines cultivated a diverse identity. At the centre of Greek Nationalism was the idea of cultural symbolism, closely intertwined with territorial symbolism. The perception of the Greek state was divided into two cultural centres – Athens, the temporary administrative centre, and Constantinople, the epicentre of Hellenism, and the Orthodox Church. The Greek language and Orthodox Church were the focal points of difference from the Latin-based West, creating a unique identity that could be claimed by Greeks from all over the Ottoman Empire (Mavrogordatos, 2003 pp.117-120). This shared identity became the foundation of Greek nationalism, which fueled and drove the Greek independence movement. Also, this indicates how Greek nationalism was not born out of modernity but was founded on pre-existing traditions, culture, and history.
The Influence of Ancient Greek Culture and Identity
Using ancient Greek culture and identity, the revolutionaries in 1821 shaped the Greek War of Independence. The guardianship of liberty was attributed to the ancient Greeks, who were also strongly associated with the idea of freedom. The revolutionaries called upon the spirit of the ancient Greeks during their struggle against Ottoman oppression. The influence of Ancient Greek culture and identity on Greek nationalism can be seen throughout the long and tumultuous history of the country. Ancient Greek culture and identity were the basis for many aspects of Modern Greek nationalism, particularly in terms of the language, religion, shared values and customs, and the sense of a separate national identity. The ancient Greeks were one of the most influential civilisations of the ancient world, known for their philosophy, literature, art, mathematics, and science. As such, their legacy still resonates deeply among their descendants and has served to define the core values, beliefs, and sense of solidarity that form the basis of Modern Greek nationalism. Ancient Greek language, mythology and classical literature have played a huge role in the Greek national identity from a very early age. The ancient Greek language is spoken fluently by around 96% of Greeks and is the language of the Greek Orthodox Church. This has helped to unite the Greek people across the nation and become a part of their shared national identity. The Greek language was deemed crucial for modern independence and national identity during the revolution. Despite regional variations, the language as a unifying instrument was emphasised by educators and writers, underscoring its significance for modern independence. As Arvanitaki notes, “Very soon, the Greek language was seen as a powerful national symbol – a tool for conveying modern educational, political and cultural ideas”. The prominence of the language was further increased by the victory of the revolution – by 1832, the already prominent influence of the language had become embedded in the national identity, with Greek being praised as the “language of freedom”. Furthermore, Ancient Greek literature, such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, is a source of national pride and has also provided the basis for some of the state’s literature and educational curriculum.
Ancient Greek religion, particularly that of the Greek Orthodox Church, has been influential and central to many aspects of Greek culture and identity. It is still an important part of the nation’s identity and is practised widely, particularly in the more rural areas. In terms of state religion, The Greek Constitution recognises the Greek Orthodox Church as the prevailing religion, with the right to believe and worship freely and without discrimination. The Greek Orthodox Church had been particularly successful in preserving the traditions of the faith – and the associated cultural and religious identity – during centuries of Ottoman rule (Chrysoloras, 2008, pp.41-45). The shared practices of the faith created a common framework on which the Greeks could build a more unified identity. As Konstantinou notes, “The Orthodox Church was integral to the rising sense of Greek nationhood, acting to bind the disparate regions of the nation together with a shared cultural heritage and spiritual rhetoric”.
Ancient Greek values, customs and identity have all had a profound effect on Athens and the nation as a whole. Greek culture generally leans towards an emphasis on tradition, particularly the family unit, and a strong sense of patriotism and honour. This has led to a very strong sense of national pride and unity, which has, in turn, impacted Greek nationalism for many years.
Moreover, the idea of democracy and individual rights, which were championed by the revolutionaries, were taken from the writings of ancient philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato (Stouraitis, 2017). These concepts were used to inspire the people and rally support for the nationalist cause. The revolutionaries also used religious rhetoric to build a sense of national unity and pride, drawing on the imagery of ancient gods and goddesses as symbols of the struggle for independence. The goddess Athena, for example, was depicted as a symbol of freedom and the protector of the Greek people, while Zeus, the king of the gods, was seen as a protector of the Greek nation. The political ideals of ancient Athens, such as democracy and freedom of speech, had a profound influence on the revolutionaries and the concept of political identity itself. Ancient Greek philosophy and science also provided much of the intellectual underpinning of the revolution – the works of classical writers such as Plato and Aristotle, in particular, provided inspiration to the revolutionaries in the form of political and ethical ideas.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the Modern Greek nation-state involved complex elements of nationalism, such as religion, ethnic-symbolic identity, language, and the influence of ancient Greeks. This period of history has proven valuable to our understanding of Greek nationalism, and as a model for further nationalism studies, especially with regard to the various ethnicities, languages, and beliefs involved in nation-building. Greek nationalism was significantly influenced by the classical period, which provided the basis of the Greek language, culture, values, and identity. Moreover, the Greek Orthodox Church was instrumental in creating a shared religious belief, which provided an additional layer to the nation’s identity. Finally, the influence of the Byzantine Empire in terms of art and culture helped unify the Greek people in a collective sense of identity. Seen in this light, the history of Greek nationalism provides valuable insight into the complexities of nation-building and serves as a reminder of the central role of language, culture and religious values in the maintenance of a nation.
Reference list
Adrachtas (2001) Religious hatred in Byzantium. E-Historika .
Beaton, R. (2020). GREECE: biography of a modern nation. S.L.: Penguin Books.
Chrysoloras, N., 2008. Why Orthodoxy? Religion and nationalism in Greek political culture. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 4(1), pp.40-61.
Demertzis, N. and Stratoudaki, H., 2020. Greek nationalism as a case of political religion. Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung, 45(1 (171), pp.103-128.
Gallant, T.W. (2016) Modern Greece: From Independence to the Present. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Hatzis, A.N., 2019. A political history of modern Greece, 1821–2018. Encyclopedia of Law and Economics”. New York: Springer, pp.838-845.
Just, R., 2016. Triumph of the Ethnos. In History and Ethnicity (pp. 71-88). Routledge.
Kaufman, S.J., 2011. Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. By Anthony D. Smith. New York: Routledge, 2009. 184p. $38.95. Perspectives on Politics, 9(1), pp.208-209.
Kitromilides, P.M. ed., 2021. The Greek Revolution in the Age of Revolutions (1776-1848): Reappraisals and Comparisons. Routledge.
Koulos, T., 2021. Nationalism and the lost homeland: The case of Greece. Nations and Nationalism, 27(2), pp.482-496.
Mavrogordatos, G., 2003. Orthodoxy and nationalism in the Greek case. West European Politics, 26(1), pp.117-136.
Mazower, M., 2021. The Greek Revolution: 1821 and the making of modern Europe. Penguin U.K.
Moles, Ian N. (1969). Nationalism and Byzantium. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 10 (1): 95–107.
Roudometof, V., 1996. Nationalism and identity politics in the Balkans: Greece and the Macedonian question. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 14(2), pp.253-301.
Smith, A.D., 2000. The nation in history: historiographical debates about ethnicity and nationalism. UPNE.
Smith, A.D., 2009. Ethno-symbolism and nationalism: A cultural approach. Routledge.
Stouraitis, Y., 2017. Reinventing Roman ethnicity in high and late medieval Byzantium.
Yanoulopoulos, Y., 2009. Greek Nationalism. The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, pp.1-8.
write