Introduction
According to studies, the 710s Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula was one of the most crucial and formative conflicts in Islamic history. Tarik the Moor and his small Muslim army would land on the southern coast of Iberia and end the reign of the Visigoths. Some would have you believe that the Muslims were the aggressors, conquering and subjugating a Christian population via force and terror. Contrarily, the reality is just the opposite. Neither “Islam vs. Christianity” nor “East versus West” can provide a simple framework for understanding this complicated conflict. Justification, liberty, and religious tolerance characterize the Muslim conquest of Spain. The history of religious tolerance in Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) requires an appreciation of the facts underlying the Muslim invasion of Iberia. To grasp the complexity of the war, we must travel back in time many centuries before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in 570[1]. A crucial schism developed in the early Christian community in the years after the life of the Prophet Jesus (‘Isa). Latin Mauri (from which we get the word “moor”) was the name given to the Berber peoples of Roman Mauretania (modern-day Algeria and Morocco). It is a generic term for the Muslims who conquered the Iberian Peninsula, whether Berber or Arab.
Spain presented a magnificent example of a cultured and enlightened nation to the rest of Europe during the Mohammedan rulers for over eight centuries. Her fertile territories yielded fruit a hundredfold due to her conquerors’ work and engineering expertise. Numerous cities sprung up in the lush valleys of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the titles of which still reflect the departed glory of their past[2]. Science, literature, and art flourished as they did elsewhere throughout Europe. Students went from France, Germany, and England to sip from the stream of knowledge that flowed only through the Moorish towns. In Spain, students would learn law, philosophy, history, botany, and mathematics. The Spanish Moors perfected field work, sophisticated irrigation systems, fortification and shipbuilding technologies, the most outstanding and most sophisticated products of the looms, the hammer and the graver, the mason trowel, and the potter’s wheel.
Figure 1: Toledo Image
By the 7th Century, the young Muslim nation had spread from the African coast to the Hindustan arid plains and the highlands of Central Africa and Caucasia. Europe was within its grasp, with the Islamic empire conquering the Iberian Peninsula by the 18th Century. Iberia conquest occurred for several reasons: to expand Islam beyond its conventional basin of North Africa and Arabia, a willingness born from hadith and Qur’an traditions, to bring more Jews and Christians underneath its rule even though they could be required to pay jizyah tax, a primarily monetary mechanism; and to appease the unengaged, knowledgeable, and a large army comprised of North Africans, who would have been captured and assimilated by them2.
Before the Berber conquest, the Visigoths ruled the area between 586 C.E. and 713[3]. The Jews were subjected to an anti-semitic legislation aiming at destroying them under the Visigoths, who had been largely Catholic. Whereas the Visigothic rulers implemented anti-Semitic legislation to varied degrees, the Catholic Church was more persistent in its hatred of Jews.
Starting with King Reccesuinth’s rule in 653 C.E., Jews endured the toughest restrictions. The Visigothic rulers utilized their Church power to carry out anti-Semitic policies. However, in case the Visigothic rulers ruled over Spain, we might deduce that the Church clergy influenced the Iberia before the Muslim conquest3. The Visigoths’ purpose was to exterminate Jews through extermination or forced assimilation. During their reign, Jews were forbidden from occupying any public positions in addition to wielding influence over Christians. Such prohibitions economically harmed them, driving their communities into destitution. In the case of the Jews, the Islamic Iberia was better in comparison to Visigoths Iberia.
Religious tolerance was much stronger Under Berbers in Iberia compared to the Visigoth’s rulers. The raiding Berbers numbered 7,000 and 12,000 people, constituting only a small proportion of the Iberian population.[4] In truth, the government transition had little impact on Christians. And as a consequence of the Muslim minority’s worries, their daily interaction with Islam was limited. The Berbers’ ability to dominate the Visigothic Iberian Peninsula was not only or even mostly due to their military capability. Rather, it was the result of their readiness to provide generous surrender conditions to the cities and local rulers they met.
Given that they were considerably overpowered by the native people and consequently could not risk losing men to fight, the Berbers proposed attractive surrender conditions. It is unknown why the Peninsula’s people did not fight Muslim conquest. The absence of a permanent monarchy may have fractured and debilitated the Visigoth military and governance, creating a favorable atmosphere for an attack. The Visigoths elected eighteen rulers between 586 and 713 C.E., and seven of them were slain.6. Because of the numerous regime revolutions, Visigothic Iberia may not have been well equipped to repel even a minor invasion army. As a result of reasonable surrender conditions and concerns of assimilation from both sides, there was very little early engagement, which contributed to nonviolent cohabitation; there was no imminent threat to the non-Arabs which could propel them to engage themselves in war.
Witiza had been overthrown by Roderick, a royal who appears to have started his reign successfully but soon succumbed to the lure of money and power. His greedy pleasure-seeking nature ignited the flammable ingredients surrounding him, requiring only a spark to ruin and explode his empire. It was once customary for state princes to send their children to the court to be schooled in all aspects of polite behavior and good breeding. Count Julian, Ceuta governor, among others, sent Florida, his daughter, to Roderick’s court at Toledo to be schooled among the queen’s waiting ladies.[5].
Figure 2: The gate of Bisagra, Roderick
The girl was stunning, and the monarch, oblivious to his honor, which obligated him to defend her like he would defend his daughter, humiliated her. The humiliation was magnified because Julian’s wife was a Witiza’s daughter, and the royal line of the Goths has therefore been humiliated in the figure of Florida. In her sorrow, the young girl wrote a message to her father and, calling a trusted page, begged him to hurry with all haste, day and night, through sea and land, until he delivered the letter in Count Julian’s hand[6].
Julian did not have any reason to like King Roderick; his relationship with the ousted and most likely killed King Witiza prevented communion with the usurper, and his daughter’s disgrace fanned his simmering rancor into a flame of furious rage6. He had always successfully fought Arab incursions, but now he determined not to protect the Kingdom of his daughter’s destroyer. The Saracens deserved Spain, so he was willing to teach them the way.
Julian went to Roderick’s Court, in which he so craftily disguised his thoughts that the ruler, who felt remorse and believed that Florida must have kept the secret, foisted honors upon him, ended up taking his counsel in almost everything about the defense of the dynasty, and even dispatched the best arms and horses in Spain towards the south under Julian’s authority, to be prepared against the heretic invaders6. Count Julian left Toledo in the emperor’s highest regard, bringing his daughter with him. Roderick’s farewell request was to have the Count bring him a special sort of hawks, which he required for hunting; Julian replied he would bring them such hawks that he had never seen before, and he returned to Ceuta with this sly hint of the Arabs’ arrival. Immediately after his return, he visited Musa, Noseyr’s son, the Arab North Africa governor, with whom his forces had several clashes. He informed him that the battle between the two was now finished and that they must be allies[7]. Then he thrilled the Arab commander’s ears with descriptions of Spain’s splendor and wealth, of its meadows and rivers, olives and grapes, gorgeous castles and towns, and Goth treasures: it was a country overflowing with honey and milk, he claimed, and Musa simply had to go across and take it.
Julian himself would guide him and provide him with the ships. The Arab, nevertheless, was a careful general; this enticing proposal, he thought, could perhaps cover a deceitful ambuscade; thus, he sent envoys to his master, the Khalif at Damascus, to request for guidance while at the same time satisfied himself with dispatching a small body of five hundred soldiers, under Tarif, in 710, to invade Andalusia coast using Julian’s four ships7. The Arabs were yet to acclimate to navigating the Mediterranean, and Musa was afraid to commit more than a small portion of his force to the dangers of the sea. The essay below will discuss the Islamic-Moorish conquest of the Iberian Peninsula: The conquest, the rise, the fall, and the impact.
The Conquest
In the seventh century CE, Islam emerged as a sociopolitical and theological force in Arabia. Despite persecution and opposition, Islam’s founder, Prophet Muhammad, gained a vast following and began establishing an empire. The Prophet Muhammad’s ideas for empire development included having an unbeatable military and adopting humanitarianism. The Islamic empire evolved and extended its territory throughout time[8]. The empire maintained its imperial growth and conquests even after Prophet Muhammad’s death. Although a weak power initially, the Kingdom quickly grew in strength, becoming a critical influence within the Mediterranean and Middle East.
Several Mediterranean islands, sections of Syria, Iraq, Arabia, Iraq, North Africa, Egypt, Iran, Levant, and Medina city in Hejaz were among the areas and towns invaded and conquered by the Islamic empire during its first few years of existence. As the empire expanded through time, its impact was seen even in Europe[9]. As a consequence, in 711 CE, a persecuted Christian chief, Count Julian, sought Musa Nusayr, the ruler of North Africa, a component of the Islamic empire, requesting assistance against the despotic Visigoth Spain ruler, Roderick, kicking off the Islamic invasion of Spain.
Musa Nusayr, the ruler of the Islamic Empire’s North Africa area, and Julian, the Christian Cueta head, agreed to undertake a combined invasion of the Iberian Peninsula; thus, Musa dispatched an Amish army of roughly 7000 warriors through the Gibraltar Strait into the Peninsula of Iberian9. During the battle of Gaudete, Muslim armies conquered a substantial portion of the Peninsula and defeated and executed the last Visigoth ruler, Roderick. Instead of returning to Africa, the army’s commander, Tariq Iyad, marched north to seize Toledo, the Visigoth capital.
Tarik and twelve thousand Berbers had gained the entire Peninsula in a single move. It took only ordinary zeal and promptness to destroy the meager opposition that some cities still provided. The winner wasted little time in capitalizing on his victory[10]. In violation of an injunction from Musa, who’d been envious of his Berber lieutenant’s unanticipated fame and ordered him not to go any farther, the lucky general went ahead without hesitation. He divided his soldiers into three battalions and distributed them across the Peninsula, easily reducing city after city. Mughlth was sent with 700 horses to conquer Cordova.
Garrison and the governor sought sanctuary in a convent, where they were persecuted for three months. When they finally surrendered, Cordova was left in the hands of Jews who had proven themselves to be loyal allies of the Muslims during the conquest and who had ever since earned high regard from the conquerors10. The Moors welcomed them into their midst and, until very recently, never punished them as the Gothic clerics had[11]. Wherever the Saracens’ armies penetrated, the Jews were always close behind: while the Arabs battled, the Jews traded; after the war was finished, Persian, Moor, and Jew collaborated in that process, acquiring science, arts, and philosophy that defined the reign of the Arabs.
Archidona was taken without a fight: the residents had fled to the hills. Elvira was attacked after Malaga surrendered. For a while, Theodemir defended the mountainous terrain of Murcia with great zeal and caution. The Christian army was slain to pieces, and Theodemir fled to Orihuela. There, he deceived his pursuers with cunning deceit. With few males remaining in the city because Murcia’s young had died in battle, he forced the women to dress in masculine garb, arm themselves wearing helmets and thick rods like lances, and have their hair pulled over their chins like though they had beards[12]. When the enemy came in the twilight shadows, they were saddened to discover the walls so strongly held. Theodor immediately raised a truce flag and placed a herald’s tabard on his page, and the two sallied forth to submit and were warmly greeted by the Muslim general, who did not know the prince.
Meanwhile, Tarik continued to Toledo, the Goth capital. He was on the lookout for the Gothic nobility. He had sought for them in Cordova, but they had fled to Toledo, which the Jews had handed over to him; the nobility was nowhere to be seen; they had fled farther and taken sanctuary in the Asttirias Mountains[13].
He traveled with eighteen thousand troops in the summer of 712, then after concurring Merida, Seville, and Carmona, he joined Tarik at Toledo[14]. The ruler’s encounter with his higher officer was not pleasant. Tarik walked forward with all dignity to welcome the administrator of the West. Still, Musa hit him with a whip, scolded him for exceeding his orders, and put him in prison, claiming that it was unthinkable to commit the protection of the Muslims to such impulsive and reckless leadership. When the Khalif learned of this jealous oppression, he called Musa to Damascus and returned Tarik to his command in Spain.
Musa had experienced a revelation of European conquest when standing atop the Pyrenees before heading to Syria. His recall halted his progress, but others quickly overtook him. As earlier as 719, an Arab governor conquered the southern section of Gaul and the cities of Narbonne and Carcassonne, and from these bases, he launched attacks against Aquitania and Burgundy[15]. In 721, Eudes, the Duke of Aquitania, defeated the Saracens behind the fortifications of Toulouse; however, this simply shifted their march farther west. They ravaged Beaune, exacted payment from Sens, took Avignon in 730, and raided the surrounding areas on multiple occasions.
They pushed the subjugated people to become Muslims and surrender to their power or leave or perish after their conquest and invasion. Despite the Caliph’sCaliph’s return to Syria in 716, the Islamic Empire controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula[16]. By 720, Spain was mostly under the power of the Islamic Empire. The Spanish land was regarded as Moorish during the Umayyad Dynasty.
Towards the eighth Century, a force of approximately 10,000 to 15,000 individuals headed by Tariq Ziyad marched from Northern Africa[17]. One and a half centuries later, Ibn Abd-el-Hakem states, “The people of Andalusia ignored them, believing that the vessels passing Glick, Thomas F. “Peter Linehan, History and the Historians of Medieval Spain. New York and Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1993. Pp. xvii, 748; 4 black-and-white plates and re-crossing were akin to the commercial vessels that went backward forwards for their advantage. In 712, Ziyad faced the Visigothic army commanded by King Roderic, resulting in conquering most of the Iberia Peninsula[18].
Roderic and most of the Visigothic elites are thought to be assassinated during the war. A catastrophic period like this rendered the Visigoths chaotic and without a leader. In this way, the Visigoth population was believed to be 200,000 individuals[19]. The surviving escaped to Écija, nearer Seville, in the north. The subsequent vacuum of power, which could have taken Tariq off guard, would have greatly benefited the Muslim victory.
The invading army was mostly composed of mostly the Berbers, who had recently fallen under the Control of Arabs control and were likely to be mildly Islamized. The army reflected a continuance of a pre-Islamic tradition of invasions into the Iberia, and that invasion was not initially envisaged20. The subsequent accounts of Muslims and the Chronicle mention invasion activities in prior years, suggesting that Tariq’s army was present for some time before the final fight[20]. A Berber headed the troops, and Musa Nusayr, the Ummayad Administrator, only arrived in the Iberia the following year, had been offered as evidence that the governor still hadn’t stooped to command an ordinary raid but had hastened over once the surprise victory became obvious. According to the 754 Chronicle, many inhabitants fled towards the mountain abandoning the cities without anyone to defend them, lending credence to the idea that this was a brief attack instead of a permanent solution of administration[21].
Between 711 and 718, the Berbers and Arabs unified under the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate aegis in Damascus and landed in the Iberian Peninsula28. The troops used warfare and diplomacy to win over the Peninsula, except for Asturias and Galicia in the north. The Visigothic leadership was forced out of Toledo with a huge Christian population remaining under Muslim rule[22]. In 718, the Christian Kingdom was established within the Asturian region, located in the northern Iberian Peninsula, past the Duero River. Al-Andalus, the Muslim territories were under the provincial government located in Córdoba.
Abbasids overthrew the Damascus Umayyad Caliphate in 750, which was the remaining dynasty member of Spain, establishing himself as the Emir. He further established Cordoba as the capital unifying al-Andalus while creating diplomatic partnerships with the Byzantine Empire, North Africa, and Christian Kingdoms[23]. The Cordoba Great Mosque construction in 785 is a major achievement during this rein of Islamic-Hispano architecture and art. The Muslim forces of Saragossa neutralized the Charlemagne invasion of Spain. The rear guard was annihilated at Roncesvalles by Basques in 778. Charlemagne troops went ahead to occupy Catalonia in 801 after they captured Barcelona.
From the beginning of the 9th Century, when the Moorish boundary lines took a final form, to the period of war that started in the 11th Century, the division between Muslim South and Christian North was placed on the mountain ranges known as the Sierra de Guadarrama, which extends north-easterly from Zaragoza to Coimbra in Portugal, where the Ebro may be held as a rough boundary. The Moors enjoyed the rich soil valleys of Guadalquivir, Guadiana, and
Tagus, as well as the famous urban areas of Andalusia, climatic benefits, commerce, and wealth. The divide was natural; these two sections have been separated geographically since time immemorial due to climate variations[24]. The north is barren and vulnerable to winds, susceptible to severe cold and rains, and is an excellent pasturage land but difficult to farm in most places. While plagued by scorching winds blowing in from Africa, the southern parts were pleasant, well-watered, and suitable for high agriculture. A large plateau separated the two, and while it was mostly on the Moorish side, it was arguable and insecurely controlled ground. It’s cold heights made it unappealing to sun-lovers like the Moors, who entrusted it primarily to the care of Berber native peoples who had originally come over with Tarik and were always kept in low regard by the Arabs who benefited from the conquest in the two-thirds of the Peninsula which they called Andalus.
The Rise
The excellent surrendering circumstances and terms that the Muslim army provided the natives were the fundamental cause for the swift and effective Muslim conquest and invasion of Spain. In contrast to the Muslim troops, the Visigoth troops and rulers were frequently forced to submit the locals to cruel and horrific treatment; thus, whenever the Muslim troops offered people humanitarian and generous conditions for converting and surrendering to Islam, they voluntarily converted and surrendered to Muslim[25]. The ancient Hispano-Visigoth community had not established homogeneous integration and compact cohabitation when Muslim warriors conquered them. In a society with both Christians and Jews, there was no unity, leaving both sides easier and weak for Muslims to struggle against and persuade to adhere to Islamic ideas and ideals.
During the conquest and invasions, many Muslims moved from many locations, including North Africa, Yemen, Iran, and Syria, to overrun the Iberian Peninsula areas, resulting in great variety in the territory when the Muslims established there. The Islamic monarchs chose the name Al-Andalus, which means “dependent emirate” in Arabic. For a time, Al-Andalus became one of the strongest Muslim civilizations, peaking in the tenth Century with Umayyad
Caliphate. The Al-Andalus Umayyad monarchy in 756 preceded the domination and stability of Muslims in Spain[26]. Despite ongoing struggle between numerous Muslim and Arab factions, the governor of Al-Andalus, the Umayyad dynasty, established the Cordoba Emirate, uniting disparate Muslim tribes to control and conquer all of Spain. Despite their good treatment during conquests, Muslim governance degraded and tightened its treatment and power over time.
Non-Muslims were first permitted to keep and openly practice their different faiths. Furthermore, they were not considered slaves and were permitted to serve in state services under Islam authority. However, Muslim monarchs severely curtailed the observance of non-Muslim liberties and faiths in later years. Non-Muslim believers, for example, were required to declare that Islam was greater than other faiths, pay taxes to Muslim rulers, and were prohibited from wearing clothes, carrying weapons, constructing synagogues and churches, or acquiring property from Muslims[27]. Other civilizations and religions other than Islam were fully outlawed in Spain toward the end of the Muslim reign, forcing locals to adapt some aspects of the Muslim culture. Some indigenous people acquired Muslim attire and names, whereas others learned Arabic. Furthermore, other faiths were not permitted to own taller buildings than Muslims, to possess the Bible, and were targeted for persecution and executions.
After the Muslim invasion of Hispania, the region was split into administrative units, including Septimania, Argon and Catalonia, Leon and Castile, and Andalusia. It was a region under the Umayyad Dynasty rule by Cordoba Caliphate and Cordoba Emir. Collaboration and cultural interchange between the Jews, Christians, and Muslims increased under these kingdoms[28]. Al-Andalus became the lighthouse of knowledge where people from different walks of life came to learn during the reign of the Cordoba Caliphate. It was the Islamic and Mediterranean worlds’ main commercial and cultural center.
In later decades, Al-Andalus rose to become a territory of Muslim kingdoms of the Almohads and Almoravids before disintegrating into several lesser nations, the most notable of which was the Granada Emirate. After assisting Alfonso VI in repelling Christian raids on the territory, the Almoravids toppled the taifa Muslim kings with the assistance of local Iberian Peninsula residents[29]. Under the Almohads and Almoravids, there was a fall in cultural and social interchange, as well as greater oppression of religious minorities, as well as a return to more fundamentalist strains of Islam.
Initially, governors nominated by the CaliphCaliph controlled al-Andalus, with most serving for less than three years. However, beginning in 740, a sequence of civil conflicts in Iberia among various Muslim parties led to Caliphal power disintegration. Yusuf al-Fihri emerged as the primary victor and virtually established an independent king. The Abbasids defeated the Umayyads for dominance of the vast Muslim Kingdom in 750[30]. However, in 756, the banished Umayyad prince Al-Dkhil deposed Al-Fihri and established himself as Córdoba Emir. He did not submit to the CaliphCaliph because the Caliph’sCaliph’s soldiers had massacred his family members.
Throughout the thirty years of reigning in the region, he built dominance over al-Andalus, overpowering the neighbors, mainly Abbasid Caliph and al-Fihri family. His successor reigned for almost one and a half Centuries with modest control over the remaining regions of al-Andalus. In addition, he controlled some sections of North Africa. However, authority over parades in the Christian frontier varied on the Emir’s expertise. Thus the control of Emir Muhammad did not go beyond Cordoba. However, after Abd Rahman III became the leader in 912, he restored Umayyad dominance and pushed toward North Africa[31]. In 929, the Emir declared himself as the Caliph, boosting the Emirate’s status that rivaled the Tunis Shi’ite Caliph and Baghdad Abbasid Caliph, with whom he competed for dominance. The Caliphate era was regarded as the al-Andalus golden period. Irrigation increased crop production with food from the Middle East, supplying all Andalus provinces[32]. The region established a sophisticated agricultural sector. Córdoba, during the Caliphate era, finally surpassed Constantinople as
Europe’s biggest and most opulent metropolis. Córdoba was an integral cultural centers in the Islamic world states. The work of some of the most prominent philosophers and scientists had a significant impact on medieval Europe’s intellectual history. After the reoccupation of Toledo in 1085, non-Muslims and Muslims from all over the world flocked to study at al-Andalus’ famed libraries and institutions. The most notable was Scot Michael, who brought Ibn Sina’s and Ibn Rushd’s writings to Italy. The transfer resulted in a tremendous influence on European Renaissance development.
Al-Andalus civilization consisted of three major religious groups: Jews, Muslims, and Christians. Although Muslims were religiously unified, there were various ethnic differences, the most notable of which was the difference between Arabs and Berbers. The Mozarabs were a group of Christians who lived long under Muslim rule and adopted the Arabic culture, art, and phrases while retaining their language and Christian rites. All of these groups lived in unique city neighborhoods. A large transformation of Christians occurred in the tenth Century, and by approximately 1100, maladies, Berbers, and Arabs made up eighty percent of the inhabitants of
Al-Andalus[33]. Most of the Berbers occupied the ranges currently Meseta Central and Northern Portugal, whereas the Arabs lived in the Ebro Valley. The Jews mainly adopted the roles of diplomats, doctors, traders, and tax collectors. By the 15th Century, approximately 100,000 Jews lived in Islamic Iberia and 50,000 in Granada.
The non-Muslims were given the ahl al-dhimma status, and the adults paid a tax on Dinar each year, while the handicapped, children, women, and the elderly were exempted from tax. The non-Muslims were further regarded as majors in areas where Christian authorities were absent. The non-Muslim governance throughout the Caliphate generated heated controversy between observers and historians, mainly those who sought to compare Muslims’ and non-Muslim cohabitation. Mara Rosa, an Iberian Literature expert, mentioned that Andalusian culture had ingrained compassion. Jews and Christians under the rule of the Caliphate were treated better than the minorities in Europe Christian zones[34]. The Al-Adalus period was vital for Jewish life, producing academicians in addition to the most stable and wealthiest Jews. Lewis Bernard, however, disagrees, claiming that the period was apologetic and historical. He argues that Islam originally was not equal, stating that it would be both logical and doctrinal absurdity.
The Caliphate’s treatment of non-Muslims varied between periods. The longest tolerance period commenced in 912 when the non-Muslims in Al-Andalus flourished and dedicated themselves to the service of the Islamic state. They participated in science research, Industry, and commerce and traded for slaves and silk, boosting the empire’s economy. Southern Iberia became the haven for the other nation[35]. During the permissive period, the Christians, encouraged by other Christians in Al-Andalus, affirmed the demands of Christianity and consciously courted martyrdom. Some of the Christians were not willing to give up their faith. Christians in Córdoba were beheaded for blasphemy against Islam. They were dubbed the Martyrs of Córdoba. These deaths occurred over time rather than in a sudden burst of religious turmoil; dissidents were completely aware of their forefathers’ misfortunes and decided to rebel against Islamic rule.
It’s possible that there was sporadic torture of Jews during the Almoravids and Almohads, but records are exceedingly few and fail to provide a better view. However, the case worsened after 1160. Throughout the repeated waves of brutality towards the non-Muslims, most Jewish scholars fled the Muslim-ruled area of Iberia, which had been retaken by Christian armies in 1085. Many Jews supported the Christian forces, while others fought alongside the Almoravids opposing Alfonso VI of Castile. Muslim genocides against Jews happened in Al-Andalus during the 11th Century, at Córdoba in 1011, and in Granada by 1066[36]. The Almohads, who had acquired authority over the Almoravides’ and Andalusian provinces by the end of 1147, were significantly more fundamentalist than the Almoravides and therefore tortured the dhimmis. Several Christians and Jews fled to escape the prospect of execution or conversion. Some, like the Maimonides household, migrated east too much more liberal Muslim territories, while others traveled north to live in the expanding Christian kingdoms. Medieval Portugal and Spain saw virtually continual fighting between Christians and Muslims. The periodic raids were dispatched at Al-Andalus to fight the Portuguese and Spanish Christian kingdoms bringing back slaves and merchandise. The 1189 raid in Lisbon resulted in Yaqub Al-Mansur, the Caliph of Almond, capturing 3,000 people, while the Córdoba ruler captured three thousand Christian slaves in 1191.
Following the invasion, Iberia was referred to as the Al-Andalus under the leadership of Muslim rulers, with few Christian territories remaining in the mountainous north. Abd ar-Rahman I 756, an Umayyad Dynasty member, took charge of the dynasty establishing an independent Monarchy that lasted until the 11th dynasty. The Cordova monarchs used the title “Emir” between 756 and 929, then later assumed the Caliph title. The Caliphate crumbled in 1031 after the Muslim regions were divided into Taifa emirates. Muslim dominance continued longer: until the Almohads were defeated in the 13th Century when the Christian Reconquista proved unstoppable. Menocal refers to a “complex culture of tolerance” established during the Umayyad’s leadership, starting with Abd ar-Rahman. Jews, Christians, and Muslims participated in centuries of academic interaction, invention, and cultural synthesis in the spirit of convivencia. It was expected to last to the fourteenth Century however some Spain, who were later Muslim kings, were not accommodating of any other religious sect.
The Fall
Nonetheless, Islam’s further conquest and invasion missions were rapidly failing. Muslim Spain lost several invasion battles to the surrounding Christian empires, retracting some initial Christian territories from the Muslims. For instance, the Muslim Spain ruler’s attempt to expand beyond the Pyrenees failed after the Franks, under Charles Martel, defeated the Muslim troops, retracting the surrounding regions that the Muslims had initially invaded[37]. Consequently, several Christian empires and rulers, especially in northern Spain, became more aggressive towards the Muslim rule in Spain, leading to numerous other sections of Muslim Spain being retracted back to the Christians. Moreover, the ongoing differences between the Muslim rulers and the uprising against Arabs in North Africa also adversely impacted Islamic rule in Spain.
Eventually, the Caliphate’s disintegration due to consistent internal rebellion and Arabic uprisings throughout the tenth Century left the Islamic rule in Spain weaker and exposed. Consequently, catholic kingdoms managed to conquer all the cities and regions, except the Nasrid dynasty from the Muslim rulers, during the 1212 Las Navas de Tolosa battle[38]. With the Muslim rulers remaining in Granada, the Christian Kingdoms were forced to combine forces and efforts to retract Granada. The Granada War started in 1482 and ended in 1492, with the Christian Kingdoms winning and retracting Granada.
For decades the Granada Emirate existed as the remaining territory under the control of Muslim within the Iberian region since, in section, the Castile Kingdom vested interest in an arrangement. As the Castile vassal, he paid a huge annual amount to the Kingdom, a requirement for the treasury that was required to finance the construction of the dynasty. The Islamic group offered the Castalian Monarchs an option to push noble people into war against Granada, promising a huge monetary compensation[39]. The model used in this period was based on attrition that aimed at destroying Nasrid Emirate and seeking profit for its existence. The Castilian attitude changed in the fifteenth Century towards Granada sultanate. Gradually, the aim was to destroy Nasrid Emirate and the territories integrated under the Castalian Crown. The reasons for this transformation were political, economic, and ideological.
The ideological reasons were first based on reviving the crusader spirit. Interest in the values of chivalry, which emphasized the importance of fame and courage, had been reawakened[40]. It was difficult to imagine a better stage to display these values than the Granada war, a battle against the enemies of the faith.
The other reason was of economic nature, with Martin V establishing a fixed fee, a collection that was influenced by political powers40. The intermediary role provided the monarch with a guaranteed profit provided that by 1430, the Pope had granted an indulgence to everyone who aided the Kings campaign against the ruler of Granada by contributing eight ducats.
In addition, there were some politically based reasons with the Castalian monarch’s strengthened power and influence by making political arrangements resembling absolute authority paving the way for monarchical authoritarianism with absolutist calling. At this point, the Christian creed became an instrument for political affirmation and legitimization. At this point in time, power was increasingly regarded as religiously exclusionary, with the non-Christians not fitting in this model[41]. The Catholic Monarchs would take this idea to its ultimate conclusion, but its development stretched across the decades preceding their reign. As a result, the aggression toward vassals that did not practice the Christian orthodoxy was increasingly seen as legitimate.
Hence, the fifteenth Century was marked by a re-evaluation of the Granadan war and the culmination of the medieval Castilian monarchy’s consolidation process. The royal power used military orders to thoroughly and adequately fulfill both of these undertakings[42]. Therefore, a resurgence of the Granadan conflict usually coincided with milestones of the authoritarian monarchy and particularly significant attempts to assert royal control over the military orders. Ultimately, both undertakings and the exploitation of military orders would reach their fullest expression during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.
As previously indicated, the destruction of the Emirate of Granada was the ultimate goal of this new approach. The military campaigns undertaken to achieve this goal are what is known in historiography as the War of Granada, which had four significant milestones: the campaigns of Fernando of Antequera, Enrique IV La Higueruela crusade, and the last Catholic Monarchs conquest occurred between 1482 and 1492.
Due to the internal problems plaguing the reign of Enrique IV and the war of succession that broke out following his death, an end to the Granadan question did not come about until the definitive triumph of the Catholic Monarchs. The ideological argument remained the same: the crusade against Islam. However, the threat posed by the Turkish advance across the Mediterranean further reinforced this line of reasoning[43]. More importantly, the Catholic monarchy embarked on a project to convert the people to the Christian faith. In 1482, Pope Sixtus IV granted the corresponding crusade bull, which favored the enterprise’s participants and anyone providing it with financial assistance[44]. These circumstances attracted crusaders from Switzerland, Ireland, England, Poland, Germany, and France, who were used as auxiliary troops, given that most of the army consisted of Castilians. The financial means provided by Castile, including donations by the cities and nobility, were added to the crusade alms collected in Aragon. Calculations indicate that the war incurred an overall cost of five million ducats. In the end, the contingents mobilized for the campaign included between 11,000 and 13,000 knights and 40,000 and 50,000 infantrymen, which, combined with the systematic use of artillery starting in 148551, explained the military success of these operations55. The final conquest of the Emirate is attributed to the combined military efforts and the capitulation of important cities, reducing the period needed for conquering cities and benefiting from the political in fights in Granada, benefiting the Catholic Monarchs’ interests.
The military orders had to play a role in the last Granadan crusade, given that its ideological overtones were far stronger and the calls for a united faith more vibrant than in previous campaigns. Their troops’ permanent availability and contribution to the campaign’s crusading spirit led to the orders’ active participation in the conquest of the Nasrid emirate. The four military orders based in Castile took part in the campaigns: Santiago, Calatrava, Alcantara, and Hospital. They were joined by the order of Montesa, led by the order’s master, Philip of Navarre. The order’s troops fought in important military actions in 1487[45]. The political situation borne from the union of Castile and Aragon greatly contributed to making this collaboration a reality.
Naturally, not all orders participated in this colossal military effort similarly. More than any other order, The Order of Santiago was particularly noteworthy. Its importance makes sense; it was the military order with the most economic resources and the greatest number of troops. Furthermore, their contribution far exceeded any other lay or ecclesiastical magnate. From 1482 onwards, when the military operations for the conquest began, the master of Santiago, Alonso de Cárdenas, was sent to Écija56. In contrast, the master of Calatrava was placed in the region of Jaén. From his base in Écija, Alonso de Cárdenas took charge of the western section of the frontier, contributing, alongside other nobles, to Alhama’s capture and subsequent defense, which he accomplished with 250 lances and the garrisons of the frontier fortresses.
On the other hand, in 1483, the Santiago order was key in the crushing defeat at Ajarquía in the Malaga region. The order’s master was almost killed, and more than thirty of his commanders either died or were taken prisoner by Granada troops. Two years later, at the height of the war’s deciding phase, the master managed to capture the town of Cártama. In 1486, the commander Martín Vázquez de Arce died in the plains of Granada while accompanying his master, the duke of the Infantado[46]. He is remembered by posterity thanks to the lavish sculpture that crowns his tomb, known as the Doncel de Sigüenza, a rendition of his likeness in alabaster, a flamboyant cross of Santiago on his chest. During the summer of 1487, the troops of Santiago actively participated in the conquest of Malaga. Gutierre de Cárdenas, the mayor of Leon, was in overseeing the placing the order cross and the standard of the Apostle James on the highest point of Malaga’s citadel.
The participation of the Order of Alcantara in the Granadan conflict was similar to that of the Order of Calatrava, occasionally surpassing it, even though its master, Juan de Zúñiga, was not involved in huge roles. At the outset of the war, he could not participate because he was underage, but by 1483 he joined his troops in the destruction of the Granadan plain. Two years later, he was at the battle of Ronda, leading 500 knights from his seigniories in Extremadura[47]. In 1487, the master Zúñiga participated in the conquest of Malaga, during which the order’s commander of Eljas died. He was also at the conquest of Vélez-Malaga, where the commander of Heliche stood out for his spectacular performance. During the campaign of Baza of 1489, on the other hand, the mayor’s performance alongside approximately thirteen commanders of the order was truly exceptional[48]. The other participating commanders presided over the encomiendas of Almorchón, Lares, Belvís, Santibáñez, Elches, García Dávila, Patezuelo, Zalamea, Morón, Peña, Quintana, Hierro and La Magdalena59. By 1502, the Christin rulers issued an order demanding that all the Muslims to Change into Christians or face brutality and restrictions.
The Kingdoms of Portugal, Castile, and Aragon spent approximately a century consolidating their territory until Isabella I from Castile and Aragon’s Ferdinand II marriage in 1469, which resulted in the unity of the Spanish crown. Isabella and Ferdinand were therefore referred to as the Catholic Monarchs who completed the 1492 Granada conquest. The Reconquista crusading spirit has been preserved in subsequent Spanish emphasis on religion, evidenced by the Inquisition’s strong influence and expulsion of the Jews and Moorish people.
Influence on Culture
Although Muslim sovereignty in Spain had ended, Al-Andalus’ rich intellectual and cultural heritage existed across the Iberian Peninsula. Islamic element’s legacy may be found across Spain. The Islamic invasion has highly influenced Spain’s growth and culture[49].
Food culture
The Iberian Peninsula has been influenced by numerous cultures, which has resulted in its food evolving throughout the years, making Spanish cuisine among the most intriguing, colorful, and varied in the world. The arrival of Islam drastically altered the Christian eating pattern, which was concentrated on wine, meat, and wheat. As a result, a change toward different eating habits occurred – the Quran’s dietary restrictions brought with them the inclusion of vegetables as an essential part, either alone or in combination with other meals such as meat, fish, and soups from lawfully slain animals[50]. This transformation was preceded by the installation of irrigation facilities throughout the region, which resulted in a greater quantity of products attributed to their high performance, allowing the consumption of freshly harvested vegetables, as well as the appearance of new types of food throughout the Peninsula’s kitchens, including watermelon, apricots, rice, chard, artichokes, and eggplants.
The wide variety of ingredients and products provided by this agricultural revolution leads us to believe that nutrition was inadequate and sparse in Spanish territory before the entrance of Arabic since it was dependent mostly on the intake of vine and grains61. In Spain, Arabic cuisine has adopted a nutritious diet complemented by deep scents from spice alchemy and sour and sweet flavors of fresh and dried fruits cooked along with meat and sauces associated with vinegar, sugar, and honey. The process of obtaining all of these crop varieties wasn’t as simple as people may believe. It was challenging, and in certain cases illegal, to bring these new fruits and plants to the Iberian Peninsula. Moving them was hard in many circumstances since there were certain plant species that could not be taken from Muslim lands and had to be smuggled out; yet, in the end, this method proved immensely beneficial to the Iberian Peninsula. Economic ramifications were massive. People were healthier as a result of the abundance of new foods, and there was a significant economic upswing at the time.
Music
Throughout history, man has explored every available means of communicating information, and music has been an essential pillar in a country’s cultural traditions, regardless of its socioeconomic progress and rank. Different music traditions, rhythmic patterns, and instruments were intermingled and absorbed within Muslim culture even as Arabs became acquainted with different cultures through the growth and transformation of new Muslim culture. Although the transmission of musical knowledge from Arab traditions is not widely recognized, it is feasible to identify people who made significant Arab inputs to the creation of Spanish music: Ziryab (789-857 CE)[51].
During the Muslim era, performance and music theory came together in the Al-Andalus royal courts. Ziryab, a brilliant musician and singer summoned by Al-Hakam to the Cordoba court, was the most notable character in this evolution. Ziryb is regarded as the creator of Muslim Spain’s many musical traditions; he learned over ten thousand compositions by heart and instituted several innovations that drastically altered the musical arts of the period. He also created several new types of composition and new techniques of teaching singing, which are still used across the Muslim West. These advances prompted him to build a musical institute in Córdoba, which educated future musicians, broadening its scope.
It was apparent that Islamic scholars held extensive expertise in teaching and mathematics; hence, they dedicated and used that understanding in the musical field. As evidence, the Arab Philosopher and Mathematician Al-Farabi, widely regarded as the most influential scientist of musical theory, created The Great Book of Music, a Spain legacy[52].
Several musical instruments are said to be derived from Arab instruments, including the guitar derived from gitara, adufe from the al-duff, and atambal from al-timbal, among other instruments.
Language
Arabic was spoken on the Iberian Peninsula for almost eight hundred years, leaving an indelible effect on the shape of the language used today, notably in terms of vocabulary. The Iberian Peninsula helped the Arabic influence and transmitted it to other languages, such as Italian and French, significantly influencing other languages across Europe. However, some words used in the Peninsula come from other European countries through Italy, mainly Sicily, a region ruled by Muslims for approximately 200 years[53]. The influence of Arabs in the region can be seen in the same cities, regions, and rivers, especially within southern Spain. Some of the common words include:
(Sp.) Alcántara – (Ar.) al-qanṭara – “bridge”
(Sp.) Guadalaviar – (Ar.) wadī al-abyaḍ – “white valley”
It is also evident that the Castilian borrowed from the Arabic language relative adjectives that are used mainly on proper substantives that related to people groups, e.g., iraní ( Iranian )
Architecture
Muslim monarchs brought a distinctively Arabic architectural style, which contained features of Visigothic, Byzantine, and Arabic architecture, towards the end of their control in Iberia. These characteristics remained powerful in the Iberian Peninsula even after the Renaissance[54]. The Cordoban and Great Mosque of Córdoba royal estate al-Rustafa are two examples of long-lasting architectural contributions made during the taifa. Arabic design characteristics were incorporated into the synagogues and churches of Jews and Christians. This evolved into the Mozarabic style. The variety of floor layouts, the absence of external ornamentation, the use of the semicircular arch, and the use of columns for reinforcements with capital ornaments were all features of Mozarabic architecture. Moorish architecture remained popular even after the Reconquista drove Muslim control out of Spain65. The Moorish architecture was used to build several Christian cathedrals. The Mudejar style evolved from the Spanish-Moorish style illustrated by Transito. Within the 12th Century, the Arabic architectural components were absorbed in what was later regarded as Romanesque design. Cities within the southern regions of Spain contain these architectural designs.
The eight centuries of Muslim control have left various architectural and cultural remnants across Spain: the primary Arab monuments include palaces, castles, and mosques. They remain as heritage monuments with architectural, artistic, and rich sophistication that embodies all the magnificence of a civilization[55]. The memorials, including the Great Mosque of Cordoba and Alhambra in Granada, have been remarkably well-kept in their original condition. These are only a few instances of this amazing heritage.
The Mosque-Cathedral Monumental Monument of Cordoba is unquestionably the most significant relic of the Umayyad Caliphate. It is a living structure that visually blends the historical layers of many civilizations and cultures. The subsequent monarchs added their aspects to the Mosque; for example, Abd al-Rahman II expanded the prayer hall by building eight additional naves towards the south and built a new mihrab, which indicates a prayer orientation[56]. An abundance of artwork on the mihrab is still evident today: plant-motif and geometric mosaics, Koranic inscriptions, and trefoil blind arches[57].
Following the end of Muslim era in Iberia, the Córdoba Great Mosque had to be altered to accommodate the Christian faith. The Reconquista began when King Ferdinand III of Castile seized Cordoba in 1236[58]. In the center of the Córdoba Mosque, a Catholic church was erected. King Alfonso X erected the Villaviciosa and Royal Chapel in the Mosque[59]. The following kings of Castile added Christian features to the Cathedral. King Henry II repaired the Cathedral in the fourteenth Century. A minaret, including its balcony, calls Muslims to prayer. The minaret was turned in the direction of the Cathedral’s bell tower.
Mudéjar style
The name “Mudéjar” refers to Muslims who remained in Spain after Reconquista in the Middle Ages and the architecture of Spanish design from the twelfth to the seventeenth Century that blends Christian and Moorish Christian features[60]. Mudéjar did not invent new buildings or designs, but it recreated Western culture style via the inspiration of al-Andalus, making it among Spain’s most important Islamic relics. Imitation and influence are most easily seen and visible in locations where the cultural differences coexisted for an extended time or when Christian power superseded Muslim hegemony.
Three important characteristics of Arab style may be found in outstanding ones of Mudéjar architecture: the Aljafera Palace in Zaragoza, the Casa de Pilatos in Seville, and the Alcázar in Seville. One is the geometrical shape (rectangles) of palace plans, which was introduced by early Islamic architecture[61]. The second is a lavishly furnished interior patio with a fountain for cleansing before prayer. And a third traditional bell tower is shaped like an Islamic minaret. Magnificent décors, such as a diversity of niches, windows, colorful ceramics, and geometric patterns, often distinguish them. Islam architecture is notable for its adornment, and the Mudéjar style never relinquished but developed the outside ornaments.
The Mudéjar style may also be observed in the San Roman church in Toledo, built-in 1221 using brickwork and figural paintings. The paintings, which depict biblical themes, are distinguished by inscriptions as borders, which is more common in Islamic than Christian structures[62]. Furthermore, the church’s arches were painted in the crimson stripe pattern recognized from the Cordoba Mosque, and Arabic writings appeared alongside Latin ones. It might indicate that the Toledans remained tied to their Arabic culture, language, and heritage.
Despite depictions of the Moors as evil heathens in works like the Chanson de Roland, Arabic and Moorish influences are still prominent. They have significantly impacted what is now recognized as Spanish culture. This fusion of two opposing civilizations has resulted in a remarkable combination of both, particularly in the culture73. Some Arabic elements remain in Spanish architecture, like the famed stucco missions of the American Southwest. Overall, the Moorish Invasion significantly impacted the development of what is today known as Spanish culture. The Iberian Peninsula culture involves a blend of different cultures that can be attributed to the invasion by different groups and different times in history. From the examples provided above, it is clear that the Moorish people had a huge impact on shaping modern Spain and Portugal.
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[2] De Hartmann, Carmen Cardelle. “The textual transmission of the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754.” Early Medieval Europe 8, no. 1 (1999): 13-29
[3] Bachrach, B.S., 1973. A Reassessment of Visigothic Jewish Policy, 589-711. The American Historical Review, 78(1), pp.11-34.
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[5] Constable, Olivia Remie, and Damian Zurro, eds. Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. The University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.
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[8] Clarke, Nicola. “Narratives of the Islamic Conquest from Medieval Spain.” Medium Aevum 90 , no. 2 (2021): 364-366
[9] Collins, Roger. The arab conquest of Spain, 710-797. B. Blackwell, 1989.
[10] De Hartmann, Carmen Cardelle. “The textual transmission of the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754.” Early Medieval Europe 8, no. 1 (1999): 13-29
[11] Corré, Alan. “Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain: Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. Dodds, editors.” (1994): 78-79
[12] Allen, Roger, and Roger MA Allen. An introduction to Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press, 2000
[13] De Hartmann, Carmen Cardelle. “The textual transmission of the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754.” Early Medieval Europe 8, no. 1 (1999): 13-29.
[14] Glick, Thomas F. “Peter Linehan, History and the Historians of Medieval Spain. New York and Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1993. Pp. xvii, 748; 4 black-and-white plates. $105.” (1995).
[15] Coppée, Henry. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors: With a Sketch of the Civilization which They Achieved and Imparted to Europe. Vol. 2. Little, Brown, 1881.
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[22] Coppée, Henry. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors: With a Sketch of the Civilization which They Achieved and Imparted to Europe. Vol. 2. Little, Brown, 1881
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[46] Jones, John Harris. “Thomas F. Glick, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages (Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill, 2005), xx.“Spain is meant herein as a geographical term presently occupied by the Spanish state.” 2 “The Chronicle of 754”, in Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain, ed. Kenneth Baxter Wolf (Liverpool University Press, 1999), 111-160. Ibn abd al-Hakam, The History of the Conquest of Spain, ed.”
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[56] Holod, Renata. “Luxury arts of the Caliphal period.” Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 391 (1992).
[57] Von Sivers, Peter. “Anwar G. Chejne, Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1974). Pp. xvi+ 559.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6, no. 3 (1975): 345-347.
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