Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The literature study looks into the various ways that absenteeism affects organizational performance, as well as the possible effectiveness of positive reinforcement techniques. Scholarly articles published between 2018 and 2023 were carefully examined through a comprehensive search approach, emphasizing the literature on organizational psychology and management. The theoretical framework is provided by two pertinent theories, operant conditioning and social exchange theory, and critical concepts like absenteeism and positive reinforcement are defined. A conceptual framework is constructed to direct future studies on using positive reinforcement to reduce absenteeism, and empirical investigations offer insightful information.
2.2 Definition of the Concepts
Absenteeism is a habitual pattern of absence from work and is a critical organizational issue impacting productivity and employee morale.
Positive reinforcement involves providing rewards or positive stimuli to strengthen desirable behaviors. This may include recognition, incentives, or other forms of positive feedback in the workplace.
- Theoretical Framework
Two theories will be used to guide the research. The first is Operant Conditioning, and the other is Social Exchange Theory.
- Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is a psychological theory developed by B.F. Skinner is highly relevant to reducing absenteeism with positive reinforcement (Akpan, 2020). In the workplace context, operant conditioning posits that consequences shape behavior. Positive reinforcement, a key concept in operant conditioning, involves providing rewards or positive stimuli to strengthen desired behaviors. Applied to absenteeism, organizations can utilize positive reinforcement strategies, such as recognition programs, incentives, or supportive management practices, to reinforce attendance-related behaviors (Golman & Loewenstein, 2018). Employees who experience positive consequences for attending work regularly are more likely to repeat this behavior. Operant conditioning, emphasizing the role of consequences in shaping behavior, provides a theoretical foundation for understanding how positive reinforcement interventions can effectively reduce absenteeism and promote a positive work culture.
2.3.2 Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory is highly relevant to reducing absenteeism with positive reinforcement as it provides a theoretical framework for understanding the dynamics of social interactions in the workplace. According to this theory, individuals engage in a continuous process of social exchange where actions are motivated by the expectation of receiving rewards or positive outcomes in return for their contributions (Stafford & Kuiper, 2021).
In the context of absenteeism, positive reinforcement strategies can be seen as a form of social exchange. A positive social exchange is created when organizations implement programs that recognize and reward employees for good attendance. Employees perceive the benefits of receiving recognition, incentives, or positive feedback as a fair exchange for their commitment to attending work regularly. This fosters a sense of reciprocity and mutual benefit, enhancing employee engagement and commitment.
By aligning positive reinforcement with Social Exchange Theory, organizations can leverage the inherent human desire for reciprocal relationships to reduce absenteeism and promote a workplace culture where attendance is positively reinforced through a social exchange of rewards and recognition.
2.4 Empirical Studies
Kuswati (2020) studied the effect of motivation on employee performance. The fall in the employee’s level of motivation is a sign that their performance is declining. Kuswati’s (2020) research provided empirical evidence that motivational variables influence employee performance in descriptive and verifiable ways. Another study by Nnamdi (2023) evaluated the impact of recognition programs on employee attendance. This study conducted a randomized control trial in a corporate setting, implementing a recognition program to reinforce attendance positively. Findings indicated a statistically significant decrease in absenteeism among the intervention group (Nnamdi, 2023).
Alkandi et al. (2023) evaluated incentives and employee motivation. Jones explored the relationship between incentive-based positive reinforcement and employee engagement. Results demonstrated a positive correlation between incentives and increased engagement, suggesting potential implications for absenteeism reduction. In addition, the study by Antony (2018) analyzed the drivers of employee engagement. According to Antony (2018), since employee engagement directly affects an organization’s performance, it has become a focal point.
Engaged employees tend to perform better in their organizations; positive word-of-mouth and increased productivity are just a few of the indicators of an engaged workforce, along with lower absenteeism, more employee loyalty, and lower employee attrition rates.
The impact of perceived organizational support and commitment on absenteeism among public local employees is investigated in the Safy-Godineau et al. (2021) study. The research findings indicate that while deliberate organizational commitment is a risk factor for absenteeism, organizational support is a protective factor against it. Their work was supported by Holman et al. (2018), who analyzed stress management interventions to improve subjective psychological well-being in the workplace.
- Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study integrates the principles of operant conditioning and social exchange theory. Absenteeism is the dependent variable, while Positive reinforcement is positioned as the independent variable, drawing from the premise that reinforcing attendance-related behaviors positively will reduce absenteeism.
Figure 2.5: Conceptual framework
2.6 Summary
In conclusion, the literature review thoroughly investigates the potential benefits of positive reinforcement techniques and the effects of absenteeism on organizations. Theoretical frameworks that offer views through which to view the processes at work include Social Exchange Theory and Operant Conditioning. According to empirical research that is continuously published, positive reinforcement and lower absenteeism are positively correlated. These ideas are synthesized in the conceptual framework, which directs the research to examine the efficacy of positive reinforcement in resolving absenteeism in the particular study scenario.
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The methodology section provides an essential framework for this research project by detailing the methodical approach to examine whether positive reinforcement can lower absenteeism. This chapter justifies the selected quasi-experimental design, highlighting how well it fits the goals of the investigation. Extensive details are provided regarding the research design, sampling strategy, and data collection techniques, including using positive reinforcement interventions. This section provides the research method, design, data collection plan, Procedure, setting, and sampling. This section also provides for the data analysis plan and how data will be interpreted for the study.
3.2 Research Method
The study will use a mixed-methods approach in its methodology, deliberately merging qualitative and quantitative data to investigate the influence of positive reinforcement on absenteeism thoroughly. Survey responses from the sample group will yield qualitative data that will shed light on participants’ subjective experiences with and impressions of positive reinforcement programs. Conversely, monitoring the monthly absenteeism rates in the control and treatment groups will yield quantitative data. Regression analysis and other statistical techniques will be used to compare the absenteeism data between these groups to evaluate the effectiveness of positive reinforcement statistically. A dual-method approach guarantees a comprehensive comprehension of the phenomena, permitting an in-depth investigation of the participants’ viewpoints and the statistical trends linked to absenteeism in reaction to techniques including positive reinforcement.
3.3 Research Design
This study’s quasi-experimental research design systematically compares data across two groups to determine how positive reinforcement affects absenteeism. Because of practical limitations, random assignment is not used in this design. The study focuses on two groups: a control group that acts as a reference point for comparison and a treatment group that receives specific positive reinforcement interventions. This methodology facilitates the assessment of discernible variations in absenteeism rates between the two cohorts, providing valuable perspectives on the plausible causal association between implementing positive reinforcement tactics and decreasing absenteeism in an organizational setting. While considering practical constraints when applying randomization, the quasi-experimental form allows for a systematic investigation.
3.4 Setting and Sampling
3.4.1 Location of the study
The research on using positive reinforcement to reduce absenteeism will occur in a specialized and controlled setting at S.K. Bangsar in Kuala Lumpur. Because of its accessibility and willingness to take part in the study, this place was selected (Adarkwah, 2021). The school environment provides a concentrated framework for investigating student attendance patterns, enabling focused interventions and a comprehensive examination of the effects of positive reinforcement tactics on absenteeism in a learning environment.
3.4.2 Sampling selection
The study’s target demographic is the 1620 students enrolled in Year 5 at S.K. Bangsar. The study uses a stratified sample technique to focus on the thirty-two kids with the most significant absenteeism percentage among the Year 5 cohort. Andrew Fisher’s Formula selected a representative sample of 22 pupils from this stratum. Based on 290 population, 10% margin of error, 90% confidence level, and 0.5 standard deviation, the computed sample size guarantees a statistically strong representation. This deliberate sampling technique improves the study’s accuracy in analyzing the effect of positive reinforcement on absenteeism within the particular context of Year 5 pupils at S.K. Bangsar.
3.4.2.1 Target population
The students at S.K. Bangsar were explicitly identified as the study’s target population. Out of 1620 students, only Year 5 students were targeted for analysis, and those with the most significant absentee rates were singled out. By focusing on the cohort most relevant to the study’s goals, this careful selection method guarantees that the sample is representative of the larger student population.
3.4.2.2 Sampling techniques
The sampling method used for this investigation was stratified sampling. Individuals in the Year 5 student body at S.K. Bangsar will be grouped according to their absenteeism rates, and the group with the most excellent absenteeism % was found. Using this technique, the sample is guaranteed to represent various demographic strata, enabling a more in-depth analysis of the effect of positive reinforcement on absenteeism among particular subgroups (Zhao, 2021).
3.4.2.3 Sampling size
Using Andrew Fisher’s Formula, the sampling size for this study was found to be 22 students. With 290 Year 5 students at S.K. Bangsar overall, a 10% margin of error, a 90% confidence level, and a 0.5 standard deviation, the sample size that was calculated to assess the impact of positive reinforcement strategies on absenteeism within the intended subset of students assures statistical reliability and accuracy.
3.4.2.4 Procedure
The sampling process was rigorously conducted, using Andrew Fisher’s Formula to calculate the sample size. A margin of error of 10%, a confidence level of 90%, and a standard deviation of 0.5 were considered for a population of 290 Year 5 pupils at S.K. Bangsar. Twenty-two students make up the sample size according to this computation. The chosen kids were sorted according to their absenteeism rates to ensure a diverse representation. This methodical sampling procedure follows statistical guidelines and offers a strong basis for evaluating the effect of positive reinforcement on absenteeism in the particular setting of S.K. Bangsar’s Year 5 student body.
3.5 Data Collection
3.5.1 Research Instrument
This study’s research tools include Likert scale rating questions and qualitative interviews, which were purposefully created to gather information about Year 5 absenteeism at S.K. Bangsar. In structured interviews with twenty-two students, two-part questions exploring the students’ perspectives and experiences with absenteeism will be asked. The primary reasons impacting absenteeism will also be methodically measured using Likert scale rating questions. The Ministry of Education’s database’s monthly attendance statistics will offer insightful quantitative information to support these qualitative methods. This two-pronged approach seeks to provide a thorough grasp of the elements that lead to absenteeism and the efficiency of positive reinforcement techniques in resolving these issues.
3.5.2 Questionnaire Design or Interview Design
The study’s interview and questionnaire designs are painstakingly constructed to elicit subtle insights. S.K. Bangsar Year 5 students’ absenteeism is carefully investigated using Likert scale rating questions in a standardized questionnaire. Furthermore, the interview design includes two-part questions to guarantee a thorough investigation of student perspectives and experiences about absence. With careful design, these tools are meant to record qualitative and quantitative information so that a thorough examination of how positive reinforcement tactics affect absenteeism in the targeted student body may be conducted.
3.5.3 Pilot Study
With thirty participants, a pilot study involving Year 6 pupils will utilize the same tools and protocols as the primary study. This preliminary inquiry aims to evaluate the interview and questionnaire design’s viability, efficacy, and clarity. The pilot study will yield valuable insights that will guide future modifications. This will ensure that the instruments are appropriate for the Year 5 student population at S.K. Bangsar and improve the overall dependability of the research findings.
3.5.4 Data Collection Procedure
A multifaceted strategy is used in the data collection process to capture quantitative and qualitative information. 22 Year 5 students at S.K. Bangsar will participate in structured interviews with two-part questions to learn more about their experiences with absence. A questionnaire with Likert scale rating questions will also yield quantitative information on the primary variables affecting absenteeism. Monthly attendance information will also be taken from the Ministry of Education’s database concurrently. The primary data collection, and pilot research with Year 6 children will occur to enable instrument refinement. This exhaustive process guarantees a careful investigation of the effect of positive reinforcement on absenteeism in the given setting.
3.6 Data Analysis
3.6.1 Descriptive analysis
The qualitative and quantitative approaches are both included in the data analysis plan. Content analysis of qualitative interview responses will be used in descriptive analysis to determine the primary causes of absenteeism. This understanding will guide the creating of an appropriate positive reinforcement plan (Prashar, 2020). Quantitatively, absenteeism patterns before and after the experiment will be analyzed by the computation of mean, median, and mode, along with the identification of maximum and minimum values. While bar charts make it easier to compare absenteeism rates for each class before and after the experiment, histogram graphs will show absenteeism rates visually and help with pattern analysis. This thorough investigation aims to offer a thorough grasp of how positive reinforcement affects absenteeism at S.K. Bangsar.
3.7 Validity and reliability
Validity and reliability are the most critical factors in the approach of this investigation. The contextual relevance of the data in educational contexts ensures its validity within the defined scope (Rose & Johnson, 2020). The research upholds the consistency of pertinent variables, hence fostering internal validity. Any potential errors or faults in the data-gathering instruments will be found and fixed through pilot testing with Year 6 students. Reliability will be ensured using standard operating processes and procuring absenteeism data from the Ministry of Education’s established database. A single teacher regularly offers positive reinforcement throughout the trial to reduce prejudice. Together, these metrics improve the data’s reliability and trustworthiness, which supports the validity and dependability of the study’s conclusions.
3.8 Ethical Considerations
The rights and welfare of participants are given priority in this study due to ethical concerns. The researcher shall get informed consent from the appropriate authorities and the pupils. Participants’ identities will be kept private, and confidentiality will be strictly upheld. Clear communication about withdrawal alternatives will exist, and participation will be entirely voluntary. The ethical administration of positive reinforcement therapies will guarantee that participants experience no discomfort or injury. The research will comply with the ethical standards established by the organization and pertinent authorities in education. This dedication to moral values seeks to protect the rights and dignity of study participants and the integrity of the research process.
3.9 Summary
In conclusion, the study considers using a quasi-experimental design to examine how positive reinforcement affects S.K. Bangsar’s Year 5 students’ absenteeism. The methodical design of the sampling plan, data collection tools, and analysis techniques provide a thorough grasp of the phenomenon. Prioritizing ethical issues helps to protect the rights and well-being of participants. The rigorous approach of the study attempts to provide essential insights on how to deal with absenteeism in the particular school context by using positive reinforcement tactics.
References
Adarkwah, M. A. (2021). “I’m not against online teaching, but what about us?”: ICT in Ghana post Covid-19. Education and information technologies, 26(2), 1665-1685. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10639-020-10331-z
Akpan, B. (2020). Classical and Operant Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus Skinner. Science Education in Theory and Practice: An Introductory Guide to Learning Theory, 71-84.
Alkandi, I. G., Khan, M. A., Fallatah, M., Alabdulhadi, A., Alanizan, S., & Alharbi, J. (2023). The impact of incentive and reward systems on employee performance in the saudi primary, secondary, and tertiary industrial sectors: A mediating influence of employee job satisfaction. Sustainability, 15(4), 3415. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043415
Antony, M.R. (2018). Paradigm shift in employee engagement – A critical analysis on the drivers of employee engagement. International Journal of Information, Business and Management, 10(2).
Golman, R., & Loewenstein, G. (2018). Information gaps: A theory of preferences regarding the presence and absence of information. Decision, 5(3), 143.
Holman, D., Johnson, S., & O’Connor, E. (2018). Stress management interventions: Improving subjective psychological well-being in the workplace. Handbook of well-being, 1-13.
Kuswati, Y. (2020). The effect of motivation on employee performance, 3(2).
Nnamdi, J. (2023). The impact of employee recognition programs on employee engagement and motivation: A case study of Southwest Airlines. 1.
Patnode, A. H., Gibbons, K., & Edmunds, R. (2018). Attendance and chronic absenteeism: Literature review. Central for Applied Research and Educational Improvement, 1-55.
Prashar, A. (2020). A bibliometric and content analysis of sustainable development in small and medium-sized enterprises. Journal of cleaner production, 245, 118665. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619335358
Rose, J., & Johnson, C. W. (2020). Contextualizing reliability and validity in qualitative research: Toward more rigorous and trustworthy qualitative social science in leisure research. Journal of leisure research, 51(4), 432-451. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00222216.2020.1722042
Safy-Godineau, F., Fall, A., & Carassus, D. (2022). The influence of perceived organizational support and organizational commitment on absenteeism in the local public sector. Gestion et Management Public, 9(2), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.3917/gmp.092.0079
Stafford, L., & Kuiper, K. (2021). Social exchange theories: Calculating the rewards and costs of personal relationships. In Engaging theories in interpersonal communication (pp. 379-390). Routledge.
Zhao, K. (2021). Sample representation in the social sciences. Synthese, 198(10), 9097-9115. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11229-020-02621-3
write