Question 1
Understanding health as a social construct delves into how an individual’s environment shapes their health outcomes. This important concept acknowledges how the various factors influencing health are highly interconnected and often beyond the control of a person due to their circumstances. The proponents of this perspective emphasize that health is not solely determined by personal choices but is significantly influenced by societal factors. Therefore, while individuals play a role, society as a whole also bears responsibility for overall health outcomes. The examination of the human body, health, and physical activity through the lens of social construction as well as embodiment unveils striking inequalities within specific populations. This sociological aspect challenges the traditional view that health disparities are primarily caused by biological factors. Medical sociologists seek to move from the deterministic biomedical model, which ignores the social forces that influence an individual’s well-being (Acolin & Fishman 2023). A comprehensive exploration of these factors not only sheds light on the existing inequalities within the community but also the need to address the systematic barriers to ensure equitable access to healthcare across diverse populations.
The different inequalities that perpetuate on young adults can be explored using the concept of phenomenology in sports and physical activities. Phenomenology delves into the subjective perceptions of the body in its engagement with the world. The phenomenological concept focuses on the experiential realities of the ‘lived body,’ phenomenology, which recognizes that physical activities are not universal, instead, they are shaped by societal norms (Allen‐Collinson 2009). This concept is pivotal in revealing the inequalities in physical activities as it reveals how society perceives ‘normalcy’ or ‘fitness’ which excludes certain body types as well as abilities, hence leading to not only discrimination but also limited opportunities for specific individuals. The social constructs around gender may also impact engagement in physical activities, as boys might be encouraged to be more aggressive in sports while girls face certain stereotypes that discourage them from engaging in sports due to their body development. Moreover, societal standards often perpetuate particular body image as “ideal.” (Chiat 2021). These standards have been significantly influenced by social media platforms like TikTok, where celebrities portray certain body images as accepted by society. These unrealistic standards often lead to body image issues among young adults who do not fit these norms.
Furthermore, the existence of the Western ethnocentric perspectives on immigrants, where they are judged based on norms, habits, and cultural values, impacts their access to quality care. The Western medical approaches may clash with the traditional healing methods about health. The ‘migrant-body’ is not just a physical entity but an embodiment of social pressures encountered by the migrants (Ennes 2020). Their physical appearances, as well as their diverse practices, often become markers of their identity, which leads to stigmatization that produces social inequalities. On the other hand, ageism often shapes the perceptions of individuals of older adults, which affects their access to physical activities. The different social constructs around aging may neglect their health needs, which may limit their access to proper care. Other social factors that impact disparities in aging include social connectivity, access to quality housing, and healthcare policies. Individuals with access to these important social factors have better cognitive and physical function compared to those who are socioeconomically marginalized.
Socially constructed barriers—both physical and attitudinal—restrict the participation of individuals with disabilities in physical activities. These individuals often lack viable infrastructure, which increases health disparities. Moreover, the LGBTQI+ Community is prone to stigma that significantly impacts their access to safe spaces for physical activities. The different social constructs revolving around sexuality affect their well-being since most healthcare access is not tailored to meet their specific needs. The First Nations people may be marginalized through systematic factors like the historical colonization that led to the dispossession of their land, which may lead to higher levels of poverty due to limited resources. One example I may use to describe how health outcomes are influenced by these social biases is a scenario where the doctor’s perception of a patient’s overweight might lead to assumptions about their health behaviors, thus affecting care provided as they may decide to amputate the patient.
In my future practice as an educator, understanding how these social factors influence individuals from different cultural backgrounds would play an instrumental role in creating lesson plans that incorporate the different needs of my students, including the LGBTQ+ Community. This would ensure that I create a culturally competent environment where diverse opinions are respected. I would also create opportunities that effectively bridge the gaps in access to healthcare and physical activities among students. With a grasp of the social influences on diverse cultural groups, I will actively contribute to the development of school policies that prioritize inclusivity to address the specific needs of refugee students. Lastly, I would encourage students to celebrate their cultural heritage while embracing their body image to foster a sense of cultural diversity.
Question 2
Intersectionality is one of the most important sociological concepts that was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. The concept describes the complex ways in which the different systems of inequalities, including the sexual orientation of individuals, racial factors, gender, class, and disability, intersect to create unique experiences and dynamics that affect these individuals. For example, if a Muslim woman wearing a hijab faces discrimination, her experiences cannot be separated from her identity of being a woman and also a Muslim since these dimensions contribute to her discrimination. Focusing solely on one aspect, like the gender pay gap, without considering factors such as race, socio-economic status, or immigration status could inadvertently reinforce disparities among women. Therefore, it is crucial to tackle multiple dimensions of inequality simultaneously to prevent reinforcing one form of inequality through the neglect of others. The application of this concept in sports when dealing with diverse populations allows for a deeper understanding of these discriminations. According to (Hankivsky and Christoffersen (2008), intersectionality plays a pivotal role in rigorously highlighting the multifaceted nature people face when entering sports. It is not just a single aspect like gender or race, rather, it is a combination of the various factors. An example to illustrate this in a sports context may involve a woman from a low economic background who may face challenges in accessing due to financial constraints as well as social gender norms.
Intersectionality can help to promote inclusivity, address the disparities, and enhance the overall well-being of individuals in the sports context by allowing for the development of intersectional approaches that are tailored to meet the specific needs of the diverse population. For example, a sports program aimed at engaging low-income minority girls might need to address financial barriers, cultural stereotypes about girls in sports, as well as the lack of representation of their community within sports. There may also be the creation of scholarship sports programs for the underprivileged who face racial barriers. Additionally, intersectionality can guide policy development in physical activity to ensure more inclusive approaches to the needs of diverse populations. This essential concept helps to identify the existing practices that inadvertently exclude certain groups. Adaptation of intersectional approaches can enhance cultural sensitivity since an understanding of the intersection of these factors can inform approaches that respect individual choices while encouraging participation. In promoting the overall well-being of individuals, an intersectional approach in sports education acknowledges that individual well-being is not just physical but also emotional, social, and psychological. This means providing holistic support systems that consider these multifaceted factors that affect people.
In my future practice in a physical education class, an intersectional approach will involve a critical understanding of the unique circumstances of my students. For a child who chooses not to participate, it is crucial to engage in open dialogue in understanding the reasons behind their reluctance. I would ensure that I engage in cultural sensitivity training to comprehend how the various factors intersect to influence the student’s decision. These factors may include financial constraints as they may not have access to appropriate sportswear, religious beliefs that might have reservations on types of clothing, or even varying image concepts that intersect with their reluctance to participate in certain physical activities. Another example in my future practice in an educational setting may be when dealing with a male immigrant student who is learning how to speak English and identifies as non-binary; thus may share different experiences than the others. To ensure he is comfortable in my classroom, I would apply intersectionality by offering him support networks based on his identity. I would also incorporate the different teaching methods that accommodate the different learning experiences of the students and others. Lastly, I may consider providing additional language support tailored to the needs of the student in facilitating their language acquisition.
Question 3
Max Weber’s Power
Weberian concept of power centers on the ability to assert one’s will over others. He broadens this notion by suggesting the concept of ‘domination,’ which involves the likelihood that specific commands will be obeyed by a certain group of individuals. This concept includes various elements, such as voluntary compliance, driven by interest, and a sense of legitimacy in the actions of the dominant entity. Moreover, this relationship establishes a structured pattern of subordination that creates the social structures within the society. Weber’s concept of power differs from the transient power dynamics as it excludes sheer force as a means of securing obedience. Instead, it focuses on sustained relationships where compliance is not arbitrary but rather establishes regular patterns of inequality over time. In essence, Weber’s concept delves into the structured relationships of obedience as well as subordination in establishing societal norms over time.
Karl Marxist’s Power
Marx’s perspective on power is deeply rooted in his comprehensive analysis of the social structures in terms of the different economic systems as well as class struggles. The terms ‘material power’ and ‘social power’ are frequently associated with economic power, although they can also encompass the broader notion of what we commonly understand as ‘power.’ Political power typically denotes the authority wielded by the state. Karl’s critique of power is highly intertwined with his capitalistic perspectives where the power dynamics within the society are fundamentally shaped by the relationships between the different social classes (Heiskala 2001). His ideas revolve around economic power, where the central power is concentrated on individuals who own the means of production. This form of power gives them control over not only political but also social institutions. Power is used by these people to dominate others in exerting influence on the laws, thus shaping them to serve their interests. The unequal distribution of economic power significantly creates where other individuals maintain their dominance over those without power.
Talcott Parsons’ Concept of Power
Talcott Parsons approached the concept of power within the broader framework of social systems. His conceptualization of power was significantly influenced by functionalism, which emphasizes how power functions within the different structures of society to maintain stability. Parsons conceptualized power through the lens of pattern variables, delineating the distinctions between particularistic and universalistic values, as well as affectivity versus affective neutrality (Heiskala 2001). Within these essential parameters, power operated as a force shaping behaviors of institutions based on social norms. According to Parsons, power was not merely coercive by encompassing legitimate authority derived from shared societal values. He supported the notion of legitimization of authority, which contributed to the stability of these social systems by providing a viable framework for governance. Parsons critiques the traditional concept of power known as “zero-sum theory,” aiming to rectify its flaws. However, his approach to power is just as biased as the view he intends to supplant. He often sidelines or entirely disregards significant issues in the debate between integration as well as coercion theories, deeming them of minimal significance.
Foucaultian Position on Power
Michel Foucault’s contributions to critical theory have significantly influenced diverse fields, including post-structuralism. Foucault’s approach challenges the traditional view of power held by sovereign authority. He critiques the notion that power flows from the top to the bottom with the presence of a singular authority. Instead, Foucault believed that power is decentralized as it operates through various social networks. According to Morgan-Trimmer (2014), his work supports the cognitive frameworks in defining what is considered true” or “rational,” which are intertwined with the power dynamics. These frameworks are not just descriptive but guide individuals on how to behave. His concepts have shed light on the modern perception of power, which operates through surveillance in controlling labor rather than wealth. He defined power not as a possession but as a multiplicity of force relations inherent in societal spheres. Foucauldian power is impersonal, relational, and devoid of a central authority. It is a complex network of influences that shape the existing sets of relations rather than a tangible entity. This power is purposeless; thus, it is neither owned nor exerted by specific institutions.
In my future work as an educator, the Weberian perspective may arise in instances where the administration holds legitimate power. However, this power structure can lead to inequalities if the decision-making ignores the inputs of other teachers. For instance, a top-down approach in policy-making without consulting educators might perpetuate inequalities in resource allocation. On the other hand, the economic disparities may affect the students in my class since lower-income families may lack access to quality resources like tutoring compared to their wealthier peers, thus leading to educational inequalities. From Parsons’ perspective of power, the educational system I may be working on may be operating as a societal institution reinforcing the norms. However, this can lead to inequalities if the teaching methods predominantly favor certain socio-economic backgrounds. Inequality caused Faucaultian power dynamics in my future practice in educational settings may occur when the educational institution’s strict surveillance, which might disproportionately affect marginalized groups, such as students from low-income backgrounds or those with behavioral differences.
Question 4
The dominance of the medical discourse within the ‘healthy lifestyle’ paradigm often overlooks the diverse needs of specific populations, thus significantly leading to the perpetuation of inequality in access. The two healthy lifestyle choices that I have chosen to critically explore include diet and exercise in terms of how they affect individuals with a disability. The ‘healthy eating’ paradigm tends to focus on standardized dietary recommendations that might not consider the unique challenges faced by individuals with disabilities (Bombak et al. 2019). Individuals with disability face challenges in their physical mobility, which limits their access to nutritious foods. In addition, healthcare disparities can also affect their ability to adhere to mainstream healthy eating guidelines. For instance, these individuals may face financial constraints due to higher medical expenses, which may make it challenging for them to afford nutritious food. They may also require modified eating techniques due to their disabilities, which may often be overlooked by the mainstream eating healthy advice. The emphasis on “less eating” might inadvertently lead to malnutrition among individuals with disabilities. Focusing solely on this concept in promoting weight-centric health ideals might overlook the nuanced understanding of the priorities of individuals with disabilities.
Furthermore, the active lifestyle’ concept fails to consider the diverse abilities of individuals with disabilities. This could include inaccessible gym equipment, a lack of elevator, or even limited availability of specialized programs tailored to different types of disabilities. They may also face barriers in accessing suitable exercising options, therefore impacting their ability to engage in these physical activities. The emphasis on “more exercise” often assumes a uniform capacity for physical activity (Bombak et al. 2019). The society’s mainstream exercise campaign promotions often depict able-bodied individuals, which inadvertently excludes people with disabilities. This lack of representation significantly leads to a feeling of inclusion that discourages them from engaging in physical activities due to a perceived lack of relevance. Healthcare professionals might offer generalized exercise recommendations without considering the abilities of individuals with disabilities.
Question 5
The adverse climatic changes have a wide range of negative impacts on individuals in society. These impacts are particularly pronounced to vulnerable groups due to various factors such as location, economic status, age, gender, ethnicity, and disability. Elderly individuals, especially those with disabilities and older women, are significantly affected by climate-related issues such as the spread of diseases carried by vectors, heat-related stress, and the rise in both sudden and gradual natural disasters. These adversities can deeply impact their physical as well as mental well-being. The three climatic impacts may include,
Health Risks: Older adults are more susceptible to health issues exacerbated by climate change. Those with preexisting conditions are likely to be affected more by the heat waves. Increased air pollution due to fossil fuel emissions can worsen their respiratory problems. Research supports that the indirect and direct effects of these adverse climatic changes result in mental health problems, high rates of mortality, and the spread of infectious diseases among elderly adults in the community (Harper 2023). They are also usually at a higher risk of dehydration when compared to the younger population due to different physiological changes that occur as part of the process of aging.
Vector-Borne Diseases: Climate change influences the distribution of disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes. Older adults are at higher risk of contracting illnesses like West Nile virus or Lyme disease since most of them have weakened immune systems.
Food and Water Insecurity: Changes in climate patterns can affect not only food but also water availability. The elderly members of society may struggle with access to nutritious food, which may significantly impact their overall health.
In my future practice as an educator, I would implement comprehensive programs focused on educating older adults about managing their health during extreme weather events. Teaching them about heatstroke prevention, air quality monitoring, and strategies to minimize exposure could be crucial. For instance, creating educational sessions focused on heatwave preparedness, including tips on staying cool, identifying symptoms of heat-related illnesses, and accessing community resources during extreme heat events, could significantly benefit older adults. Collaborating with community organizations to implement these programs may be pivotal in ensuring the adaptation of an effective approach.
Reference List
Acolin, J. and Fishman, P., 2023. Beyond the biomedical, towards the agentic: A paradigm shift for population health science. Social Science & Medicine, 326, p.115950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115950
Allen‐Collinson, J., 2009. Sporting embodiment: Sports studies and the (continuing) promise of phenomenology. Qualitative research in sport and exercise, 1(3), pp.279-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/19398440903192340
Bombak, A., Monaghan, L.F. and Rich, E., 2019. Dietary approaches to weight-loss, Health At Every Size® and beyond: rethinking the war on obesity. Social Theory & Health, 17, pp.89-108. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41285-018-0070-9
Chiat, A., 2021. Body Positivity Movement: Influence of Beauty Standards on Body Image. https://sophia.stkate.edu/shas_honors/50/
Ennes, M.A., 2020. Bourdieu and the ‘migrant-body’: embodiment in the migratory context. Revista Brasileira de Sociologia, 8(19), pp.26-58. https://doi.org/10.20336/rbs.609
Hankivsky, O. and Christoffersen, A., 2008. Intersectionality and the determinants of health: a Canadian perspective. Critical Public Health, 18(3), pp.271-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581590802294296
Morgan-Trimmer, S., 2014. Policy is political; our ideas about knowledge translation must be too. J Epidemiol Community Health, 68(11), pp.1010-1011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-203820
Heiskala, R., 2001. Theorizing power: Weber, parsons, foucault and neostructuralism. Social Science Information, 40(2), pp.241-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/053901801040002003
Harper, S., 2023. The Implications of Climate Change for the Health of Older Adults. Journal of Population Ageing, 16(3), pp.565-568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12062-023-09425-6
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