Part one: A theoretical examination of two or more strands of discrimination
Religion in an Intersectional Framework
Religion has been one of the most common strands of discrimination over many centuries. Differences among the faiths of varied religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and minor traditional religions often cause wars, hatred, discrimination and injustice (Mtata, 2013). Intersectionality factors such as race, gender, and class complicate discrimination based on religion. In most cases, it is people of the minority religion who have other minority identities, such as belong a minority race or belonging to a low class, who suffer the most injustice and discrimination from those aligned to the majority religion. For instance, the UK has a large but declining population of Christians at 46%, with non-religious people forming about 37% of the population (Booth et al., 2022). The vast Christian population tends to have some stereotypes and an indifference to minority populations such as Arab Muslims, who represent less than 7% of the UK population.
The majority of white Brits think that Muslims make up less than 15% of the UK population, and most Brits think that the Muslim population is growing at a faster rate than it should (Kundnani, 2015). Massoumi, Mills and Miller (2017) observe that Islamophobia is pervasive among Western countries such as the US, UK and Western Europe. The phobia is usually unfunded and based on stereotypes, resulting in massive discrimination and injustice being meted out to Muslims in the US and Western Europe. Elman (2019) states that Islamophobia is highly pervasive in Western countries that align with Israel in its conflict against Muslim-majority Palestine.
Religious conflicts can also happen when people confess to being atheists or not belonging to any religion. Injustice and discrimination based on religion can take diverse, intersectional ways. It can be linked to gender, race, sexuality, class and disability. Most minority identities are targeted for belonging to particular religions, while others are targeted for not being religious at all. Although rare in the UK, it is almost illegal to be non-religious in some countries. Some religions, such as Islam, deeply abhor the abandonment of religion or apostasy. In many Muslim-majority countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq and Kuwait, it is illegal to be apostate (Meer & Modood, 2010). At times, the punishment for apostasy is the death penalty.
Regarding intersectionality, injustice and discrimination affect diverse aspects such as gender, ethnicity, nationalism, class, and socioeconomic status. Although people come from diverse ethnicities, there some ethnicities such as Arabs and Africans who are predominantly belong to Islam, Whites who belong to Christianity, Asians who are Buddhists and much more. Additionally, and in connection with ethnicity, religious discrimination also relates to nationalism, where people from certain countries are assumed to belong to certain religions (Massoumi, Mills & Miller, 2017). For instance, most Westerners, including those from Britain, assume that all people from Middle Eastern countries are Muslims or those from Latin America are Christians (Said, 1978). Regarding gender, people face diverse injustices and discrimination based on their gender identities. For instance, Muslim men tend to be accused of being terrorism suspects or involvement in radicalism. Muslim women predominantly suffer the brunt of oppressive dressing. Many cultural identities regarding some religions, such as Buddhism, tend to be associated with monk cultures, strict dressing, eating and high levels of discipline and life, among other aspects.
Race in an Intersectional Framework
Race refers to the social and cultural significance assigned to a group of people who are recognised as sharing similar physical and physiognomic characteristics as well as a common lineage of descent (Akala, 2018). It is a different construct from ethnicity, which refers to people sharing similar cultural identities, such as language. However, the two terms often overlap and can sometimes be used interchangeably. Race is a social construct that lacks any scientific backing since all humans share 99.9% of DNA. Minor differences in skin colour and hair structure are often magnified to give certain races some form of social supremacy. Racism has been used as the basis of humans committing some of the worst atrocities against fellow humans such as slavery, genocides and colonialism (Law, 2010). White supremacy, or the belief that white people are superior to other people, has been deeply pervasive in modern history. Race is a complicated issue that needs to be examined in the context of other factors such as sexism, gender and religion, among others (Fekete, 2004). White supremacy has complicated race issues, and it is at the heart of most of the intersectionality involving race. For instance, sexuality and race intersect differently for people from diverse races, with black gay men facing more discrimination compared to white gay men. In the case of slavery, men and women were treated differently, with African men being some of the most preferred enslaved people to work in white plantations in America and Europe. Women, on the other hand, were enslaved to do domestic work and also on farms.
Edward Said’s orientalism theory can be used to explain the intersectionality of race and other issues such as gender, religion, ethnicity and class. Orientalism refers to the Western construction and representation of the East or “Orient”. Although Orientalism was first applied to studying Middle Eastern cultures, it has extended to shaping the identities of other races (Said, 1978). Orientalism portrays Eastern cultures as inferior, exotic and in need of assistance or intervention from the West. For instance, the majority of Westerners view Eastern religions such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism as inferior to Christianity (Said, 1978). The “othering” of non-Westerners gets more complicated with gender-based issues since men and women suffer racism differently. For instance, in the UK, black men are more likely to be imprisoned compared to white men, and they are also more likely to suffer other forms of injustice and be branded “thugs” compared to non-Western women.
Chandra Mohanty’s “The Third World Woman” concept offers valuable insights into the intersection of race and gender. The theory states that specific socioeconomic and political issues affect women from developing countries (mainly from the global south), thereby shaping their identities differently from those in the developed north (Mohanty, 2003). Colonial histories, cultures and economic structures deny women in developing countries opportunities at work, education and politics (Mohanty, 2003). Most of the global south comprises patriarchal societies that centre power on men. Through veiled or open racism, the developed countries would want to maintain that status quo where women remain subservient to men for the current power balance between the North and South to remain.
Sexuality in an Intersectional Framework
Sexuality and sexual orientation have evolved with the ever-widening scope of the LGBTQ. While previously, people were primarily considered to be heterosexual, the emergence of people identifying as gay led to multiple other sexual identities, each with its uniqueness and challenges. Since the vast majority of people in many cultures are heterosexuals, they consider themselves to have conventional sexuality. In contrast, in some societies, people identifying as lesbian, gay, transgender, queer and bisexual are regarded as unconventional and hence face various forms of injustice and discrimination (Butler, 2011).
Sexuality has always been viewed from an intersectional perspective of framework. Sexuality, gender and sex are all interlinked because they can be fluid and dynamic. Lesbian women face a variety of challenges that are markedly different from those of gay men. In Western cultures, there has been a trend of societies being more welcoming and accommodating of lesbian women as compared to gay men (Back & Solomos, 2000). In some cities across the UK, gay men fear exhibiting their sexualities in public for fear of harassment, being ridiculed or even being denied work and education opportunities.
There are a few theories that can help explain the intersectionality of sexuality. Kimberle Crenshaw’s Queer Intersectionality Theory explores the intersectionality of sex with class, gender and race. According to this theory, LGBTQ people face varied challenges and discrimination based on their multiple identities. For instance, black gay men face compounded challenges and discrimination compared to lesbian white women (Lutz et al., 2016). Lutz et al. (2016 observe that members of the LGBTQ community who come from affluent backgrounds and classes also face lesser discrimination and challenges compared to those from poor, low-class backgrounds. LGBTQ people of colour are compelled to confront discrimination on two fronts- one based on their alleged non-conventional sexuality, and the other due to their racial identity. For instance, when seeking work opportunities, an LGBTQ person of colour will most likely face discrimination or be required to prove capability and qualification to a higher degree compared to a white heterosexual person.
Adrienne Rich’s theory on Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence states that societies tend to impose heterosexuality as a norm (Rich, 1981). The imposition shapes societal expectations and limits how people express diverse sexualities. When there is a push for people to be heterosexual, intersecting factors such as class, race, gender and ability all complicate the issue, compelling many of the so-deemed non-conventional sexualities to shelve themselves and be open to systemic discrimination and abuses. Lisa Duggan’s homonormativity theory also relates to the expression of dissatisfaction and labelling of LBGTQ identities as non-conventional. She states that although there is excellent progress in the expression of varied sexualities and their quality in society has risen, there is plenty of unspoken, hidden, subtle discrimination and marginalisation (Engel et al., 2016). Individuals who belong to minority identities regarding gender, race, class and ability face the worst of that subtle discrimination.
Bell Hooks also has a related theory called Black Feminist Sexual Politics. Her work focuses on black women who often face the brunt of the intersectionality of factors such as race, gender, class and ability. According to Bell, black women face high levels of discrimination, especially at work, where they have to prove their competence to a degree higher than other people (Biana, 2020). Lesbian, transgender, queer and bisexual black women often report negative experiences in patriarchal societies such as the UK and other Western cultures.
Part Two: An examination of a case study where the above theories could be applied
Case study on religion
One of the best case studies of injustice and discrimination based on religion is Islamophobia. Islamophobia is not necessarily about the hatred or fear of Islam, but it is more about making being a Muslim a problematic identity. It is about non-Muslims having a problem with Muslims and viewing them as people who do not project themselves into the future in a manner that aligns with other major religions. Sayyid (2014) states that Islamophobia manifests itself in many ways, such as attacks on people identifying as Muslims, attacks on their properties, intimidation, institutional prejudices and comments against Muslims and Islam. In the UK, Islamophobia manifests itself in the same ways it does in most of the western countries. The majority of Westerners view Islam as one monolithic block; it is often seen as “separate” and ‘other” when viewed against other religions, especially against a Christian majority population (Meer & Modood, 2010). It is also seen as inferior, barbaric, irrational, sexist and primitive to other religions, especially against Christianity. Many Westerners also view Muslims as aggressive, supportive of terrorism, aggressive, and in support of retrogressive ideologies. A good number of Westerners also view Muslims as supporting political rather than social-economic ideologies (Abu‐Lughod, 2002). With all these prejudices and negativities against Muslims, many Westerners view Muslims as deserving of discrimination, and that hostility against Muslims is viewed as justified, normal and natural.
Islamophobia can manifest in diverse ways when viewed from an intersectional perspective. It can be linked to gender. A good example is the 2004 headcover ban that affected only women in France. The move was a massive injustice to Muslim women while shielding Muslim men from such adversity. Germany had also made a related decision in 2003 when it banned headscarves (worn mainly by women for all civil servants. In 2009, Switzerland also made a related decision against women when it banned minarets, a decision that was primarily against Muslim women donning religious dress in the country (Massoumi, Mills & Miller, 2017). Denmark also banned the Burka (commonly worn by Muslim women). This decision also proved the intentionality of religion and gender, whereby Islamophobia tends to oppress women more than women in matters of dressing.
Religion, in the example of Islamophobia, is also intersectional because there is an aspect of racism in Islamophobia. The majority of Westerners, including Britons, assume that almost all Muslims are Arabs, Asians or Africans. Muslims have often been viewed as light and dark-coloured people who are hard of European descent. It is about attaching skin colour, hair colour, body structure, and other racial markers to assign specific people to specific religions (Kundnani, 2015). In many instances, Britons and other Westerners have the perception that skinny or slim people wearing turbans (headdresses) and with long dyed beards (for men) or women wearing black flowing dresses providing cover from the head to the ankles are all Muslims and hence deserve all the prejudices, injustices and inequalities meted out on Muslims.
Case study on race and intersectionality
There are many examples of race interacting with other factors to cause some people injustices and discrimination. The first has to do with the media portrayal of non-whites, especially black men, as criminals or thugs. That portrayal comes from systematic racism and discrimination against non-whites and their unproportionable representation in the criminal justice system. For instance, black people are disproportionately represented in UK prisons. Black people are four times more likely to be incarcerated compared to whites. Despite forming only 3% of the population, black people represent 12% of all people imprisoned in the UK (Jackson, 2020). Compared to women, black men have a disproportional representation in white-majority countries. In the US, the issue is also pronounced with several murders of black teenagers, mostly from poor, low-class neighbourhoods. For instance, numerous white police officers have been accused of shooting innocent, unarmed black men. The case of George Zimmerman killing Trayvon Martin, a 17-year-old black teenager, ranks among the most blatant cases of racism. Zimmerman claimed to be a self-appointed neighbourhood watch officer (CNN, 2023). To complicate the case, TV host Bill O’Reilly claimed that Trayvon was killed for “looking a certain way”. They claimed that Trayvon wore a hoodie and that that was how “gangstas” looked. Although it seemed as if Trayvon’s killing was not based on his skin colour, there was a race factor in the killing since the area where he was killed was predominantly black and labelled a gang area.
There are also varied examples of injustice and discrimination in the healthcare sector. In most instances, race intersects with socioeconomic status and class. Numerous studies show that communities of colour and with low-income levels face significant barriers to accessing quality healthcare. Most people of colour face limited access to preventive care, and they are exposed to certain chronic and infectious diseases. A study by Hackett et al. (2020) on 4883 ethnic minority people in the UK showed that 998 (20.4%) of them reported racial discrimination. The majority of these people had limited access to quality healthcare necessary to address their longstanding chronic illnesses. They also suffered poor healthcare because of their inability to afford better care.
The COVID-19 pandemic also revealed racial disparities in the UK healthcare system with several compounding factors such as class and socioeconomic background. Irizar et al. (2023) considered 77 studies that had gathered more than 200,000,000 participants worldwide. Black people were shown to have a relatively higher chance of testing positive for COVID-19 infection compared to other races. South Asian and Hispanic people followed in second and third place for risk exposure, then mixed-race people next. Black, Hispanic and South Asian populations also showed higher chances of admission into the ICU and higher mortality compared to white populations.
Case on sexuality and intersectionality
There are many examples of injustice and discrimination based on sexuality and the intersectionality therein. The examples and case studies stem from heteronormativity (an assumption that being “straight” – attraction to the opposite sex) is normal and positive,. At the same time, any other sexual orientation is odd and non-conventional (Hill & Bilge, 2016). Further, there is homophobia, which refers to the fear and hatred of gay people. The most prevalent and open examples of discrimination based on sexuality are in the healthcare sector. Information from the Stonewall website reveals that women members of the LGBT community, specifically bi women, experienced anxiety at a higher level than bi men. Almost two-thirds (72%) of bi-women reported to have suffered anxiety in the past year compared to 56% of bi-men (Stonewall, 2023).
Members of the LGBTQ community from minority races also tend to suffer the highest forms of discrimination and injustice. More than half (51%) of black, Asian and other minority races expressed facing poor treatment and discrimination compared to members of the majority race within their localities. They reported facing such discrimination mainly because of their ethnicities. One in five (18%) of LGBT people have experienced some form of homelessness at some point in their lives (Stonewall, 2023). It is safe to conclude that there is an unfair and disproportionate representation of minority races among these homeless LGBT people.
Religion also complicates discrimination and injustice for the LGBT community. A third (32%) of lesbians, gays and bi-sexual have confessed they are religious and reported not opening up about their sexualities to people within the faith or religious communities (Stonewall, 2023). Failure to disclose their sexual identities means that such people live in constant fear of discovery, possible expulsion and discrimination when discovered and an overall poor mental state.
Gender identity can also compound the discrimination of transgender people. A study revealed that 25% of trans people who are religious do not disclose their trans status to members of their faith (Stonewall, 2023). Like lesbians, gays and people, a good number of transgender people live in constant fear of discovery, thereby depriving themselves of achieving higher potential in education, work and social life. Gender identity also compounds discrimination of lesbians and gay people in matters of hate crime and discrimination. Seventy-two countries across the world criminalise same-sex relationships. While the rule applies to both men and women, it is harsher on men than on women in most countries. LGBT women also face instances of violence and homophobia from misogynistic and chauvinistic men. In the UK, there was a case where four boys aged 15-17 attacked two women for refusing to kiss while on a bus (Pitas & MacAskill, 2019). These incidences and examples prove that the intersectionality of gender, race, ethnicity, and class all compounds the discrimination members of the LGBT face despite great strides in human rights in the UK and across the world.
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