Emotions are an important part of human life because of their importance and novelty in psychology and their variance through cultures. More recently, there have been arguments against the possibility of any universals in expressions of emotion, citing many examples of cultural differences, albeit these opposing opinions were distinguished between universal and culture-specific parts of facial behavior (Friesen & Ekman, 1969). The link between specific facial muscle patterns and specific emotions such as happiness, sadness, rage, fear, and interest contains universals. As Friesen & Ekman (1969) reiterate, the stimuli that become established as compounds of various emotions through learning, the way of balancing facial behavior in specific circumstances, and many of the effects of emotional appeal would all show cultural variances. For instance, the conducted studies displayed still images of faces of persons from various cultures to see if the same facial action was seen as the same emotion independent of the viewers’ culture (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). This paper will look at the identification of emotional concepts across cultures, behavior therapies available and their applications, the concept of social learning theory in understanding the nature of reinforcement in individual behavior, and the psychoanalytic observation of narcissism.
As mentioned, it is crucial to employ that societies that have little visual interaction with some cultures understand facial activity similarly to these cultures in their analysis of facial behavior. According to Sorenson & Gajdusek (1966), while many individuals of New Guinea’s southeast highlands of linguistic-cultural group have had substantial interaction with explorers, government, traders, and US scientists, others had less. The civilizations are exposed to some of the same facial behavior depictions in the media. To overcome the difficulties in interpreting earlier findings, it is vital to prove that societies with little visual interaction with literate cultures understand facial behavior similarly to these cultures. For this experiment, only volunteers who satisfied the rules put in place to screen out everyone apart from those who had few chances to learn the Western facial actions were chosen. As a result, these criteria made it highly implausible that individuals could learn a foreign way of emotional facial expressions in such a way that their judgments were in line with those of members of literate cultures. Therefore, the counselors align with behavior therapies and their applications necessary to understand the idea of the emotion and the behavior culture.
Another behavioral underpinning is the idea of nature, which is based on the assumption that people have distinguishing characteristics that are relatively constant across settings and throughout time. It is possible to account for both the fewer attributes of the underlying personality and the predictable variability across situations in some of its behavioral expressions when personality means a stable system that tells how the individual chooses, construes and makes social information and generates social behaviors. According to Mischel & Peake (1982), the strategy in the approach to personality is to recognize the significance of situations and consistency in behavior that can be found from one situation to another. The behavioral expressions of the underlying factors or processes may not always have a direct relationship. The aim of the personality assessor in these process concepts looks to find the relevant patterns that show a person’s behavior across disparate settings. The defense habit of believing in luck is an attempt to serve the psychological purpose of allowing people to maintain their self-esteem in the event of failure. It may serve to limit long-term pathways in some people. At a group level, the concept of alienation appears to be linked to the variable of internal-external control. Because he is smaller and too ambiguous to manage, the alienated individual believes he is powerless to control his fate. As a psychological variable, alienation relates to pricelessness, as well as internal and external control.
As reiterated herein, in understanding the behavior culture, there are therapies based on classical, operant, or social psychological principles to elevate human functioning through the behavior approach. Based on the operant principle, positive reinforcement which involves an increase in the frequency of a behavior is applied which is followed by a positive reinforcer. According to Broden, et al. (1971, this procedure has been successfully used in academic behaviors where the performance increased where reinforcers included social praise and attention. Furthermore, there is a negative reinforcement method that strengthens behavior when the behavior results in an undesirable event being avoided. The approach was successfully used to improve a retarded boy’s proper play conduct and increase children’s compliance with their mothers’ requests. The approach, however, should only be used when positive alternatives are not effective. In some perception experiments, people can be categorized along a continuum based on whether they get most of their cues from the environment or from within. People who work in the field are more likely to conform to it.
Students of human nature understand the importance of reinforcement, reward, or pleasure in learning and execution of skills and knowledge, even though an event viewed as reward or reinforcement by some people may be interpreted and reacted to differently by others. This variable is useful for knowing the nature of learning processes available through social learning theory. Goodnow et al. (1955) state that differential subject behavior is linked with differences in a skill and chance perspective. Belief in fate, chance, or luck has relevance, albeit it has been associated with variations between groups or communities rather than individuals. Veblen (1899), argued that a belief in chance was considered a different way of life and was associated with an inefficient society whereby believing in chance as a solution to one’s issues was associated with lower productivity. There are a lot of effects on expectancies for reinforcement when measuring individual variations in a generalized belief in external control as a psychological dimension. Ego control appears to encompass ideas of self-assurance and the ability to deal with reality. There is evidence that people at either end of the reinforcement scale are likely to be maladjusted by most definitions. To the extent that ego control is another sort of maladjustment definition, it would have a curvilinear relationship to the variables.
In addition to the concept of individual behavior, narcissism psychoanalysis is a psychiatric disorder characterized by a sense of self-importance, a strong desire for undivided attention, and appreciation which affects a person’s mindset. Narcissism involves the actions of an individual who treats his body as a tool for sexual pleasures. Consequently, narcissism tends to possess attributes of a perversion, which absorbs the whole sexual mindset of a person. A patient suffering from hysteria loses the taste of reality, but analysis reveals that he has not completely lost touch with his sensual relationships with people and things, as he keeps them in fantasy Freud (1914). The term introversion may only be applied to this condition of the libido when it is used indiscriminately.
There are distinctive emotional concepts across cultures as well as behavioral therapies that are available based on their applications. As stated, the history of psychology outlines critically how humans relate to different cultures as well as settings and also how introversion alters human normal functioning.
References
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Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. semiotica, 1(1), 49-98. https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49
Freud, S. (1957). On narcissism: An introduction. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIV (1914-1916): On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, Papers on Metapsychology and Other Works (pp. 67-102). https://pep-web.org/browse/document/se.014.0067a?page=P0067
Goodnow, J. J. (1955). Determinants of choice-distribution in two-choice situations. The American Journal of Psychology, 68(1), 106-116. https://doi.org/10.2307/1418393
Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1982). Analyzing the construction of consistency in personality. In Nebraska symposium on motivation. University of Nebraska Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1983-32730-001
Sorenson, E. R. (1975). Culture and the expression of emotion (pp. 361-372). TR Williams (Ed.), Psychological anthropology. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110802818
Veblen, T. (1899). The barbarian status of women. American Journal of Sociology, 4(4), 503-514.https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/210824
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