Research Question
Gender disparities in income are a significant issue in the United States and worldwide (Abdel-Raouf & Buhler, 2020). Women are often paid less than men for the same job, which significantly impacts the economic well-being of individuals and families. It is essential to understand the factors that cause this gender disparity to develop policy solutions to reduce or eliminate it. This research proposal seeks to identify the factors that impact income disparity between men and women.
My research question is: How does gender impact income? Specifically, does gender have a statistically significant effect on income levels for individuals? My quantitative research question for this proposal is: Is there a statistically significant difference in income levels between males and females? This is an important question to ask in a sociological context because gender roles and their associated expectations significantly affect people’s ability to earn a living wage. By examining how gender impacts income, we can gain insight into how gender roles and expectations influence economic outcomes (Barroso & Brown, 2022). Additionally, this research question can inform social policies and practices that may be necessary to help ensure that all individuals, regardless of gender, have access to the same economic opportunities and rewards.
Literature
The literature on gender and income has long established a clear divide between men and women regarding earning power and employment opportunities (Barroso & Brown, 2022). Quantitatively, research has consistently revealed that women earn significantly less than men, regardless of occupation or level of education (Corbett & Hill, 2012). In the United States, the median income for men was almost $60,000 in 2019, while the median income for women was just over $45,000 (Semega, 2022). This discrepancy is even more pronounced when looking at the top earners, where men outnumber women by nearly 3 to 1. This discrepancy in income between men and women is often attributed to the gender wage gap, which results from various factors such as differences in education, working hours, and career paths. Women are more likely to take part-time or casual work and are often excluded from higher-paying positions due to discrimination and systemic bias.
Additionally, research has shown that women are often paid less than men for the same job, even when controlling for education and experience (Hegewisch et al., 2020). This is due to several factors, including the fact that women are more likely to take jobs in lower-paying industries and may be less likely to negotiate for higher pay due to a lack of confidence. The gender wage gap is further exacerbated by a lack of affordable childcare, often preventing women from taking on additional hours or more demanding positions. Finally, women are more likely to take time out of the workforce to care for children or other family members, resulting in a lower lifetime income (Hegewisch et al., 2020).
In addition to this quantitative evidence, qualitative research has revealed patterns of gender discrimination in the workplace. Women are often underrepresented in positions of power and authority, leading to unequal distribution of resources and rewards (Jackson, 2020). Women are also more likely to face gender-based harassment, which can further limit their earnings and professional opportunities. Qualitative research has shown that gender discrimination in the workplace is a pervasive issue. Women are often underrepresented in leadership positions and often overlooked for promotions and pay increases. This unequal distribution of resources and rewards can limit women’s opportunities for career advancement. Women are also more likely to experience gender-based harassment, which can further limit their ability to succeed in the workplace and contribute to feelings of unease and insecurity. This harassment can range from subtle comments to physical advances and can be experienced in the form of jokes, inappropriate touching, or exclusion from team activities. This harassment can make it difficult for women to speak up for themselves and lead to an uncomfortable work environment.
These findings suggest that gender is a significant factor in determining income and that there is a need for further research into the relationship between the two. Further quantitative studies could explore the effects of gender on wages and job opportunities and the impact of institutional and cultural biases on income levels. Qualitative research could also be used to explore women’s experiences in the workplace and the various forms of gender discrimination they may face. To further explore the relationship between gender and income, quantitative studies could look at the effects of gender on wages and job opportunities, taking into account the effects of discrimination. Qualitative research could also provide valuable insights into women’s experiences in the workplace and the various forms of gender discrimination they may face. This could include interviews with women in different industries to explore their experiences of discrimination in the workplace and their strategies for dealing with it. Such research could also examine issues such as the gendered division of labor in the home, which may contribute to women’s lower incomes. By further exploring the relationship between gender and income, we can better understand the barriers to economic equality and develop strategies to reduce gender inequality in the workplace (Hegewisch et al., 2020).
The literature has primarily approached this research question from a gender-based pay gap perspective. This research is often based on data from surveys and other studies that compare the median wages of men and women while controlling for other factors such as occupation and experience (Hegewisch et al., 2020). This research has found a significant gender-based pay gap, with women earning less than men on average. My research question contributes to this literature by examining how gender broadly impacts income. Specifically, I aim to explore how gender affects a person’s ability to access higher-paying jobs, negotiate pay, and receive promotions. My research will also examine how gender roles and perceptions of gender can influence a person’s income. By analyzing gender-based income disparities from multiple perspectives and at different levels of the labor market, I will be able to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of gender on income.
Survey design
The survey questions designed to answer the research question “How does gender impact income?” will include independent and dependent variables (Arevik, 2022). The independent variable in this survey will be gender, and the dependent variable will be income. To measure gender, survey participants will be asked to select either “Male” or “Female” in response to a multiple-choice question. Secondly, survey participants will be asked to enter their annual salary in response to an open-ended question to measure income. These two variables will then be compared and analyzed to explore the impact of gender on income. In addition, the survey will include other questions designed to provide context and further insight into the research question. These questions include but are not limited to inquiries about age, education level, job title, location, and several years in the workforce. Additionally, the survey will include questions that measure other factors contributing to income, such as hours worked, job satisfaction, and time spent in professional development.
The questions included in the survey will follow best practices outlined in the literature. For example, according to the literature (e.g., Dillman, 2000), survey questions should be written to be as clear and concise as possible. Additionally, the literature indicates that survey questions should be tailored to the specific research question (Moser & Kalton, 1986). Therefore, the survey questions included in this research proposal are designed to be as specific as possible to the research question of “How does gender impact income?”
Respondents for this survey would be recruited through a convenience sampling approach. This type of sampling would involve recruiting respondents voluntarily from a large population, such as through online survey platforms, to quickly and easily obtain a large sample size. Convenience sampling can be used in this case because it requires minimal effort to recruit respondents and can provide a large enough sample size to draw valid conclusions. The survey instrument would include a variety of questions related to the impact of gender on income. These questions could include open-ended questions to gather qualitative responses and closed-ended questions to gather quantitative responses. For example, the survey could include questions about the respondent’s gender, income level, occupation, education level, and other factors that may impact their income. These questions should be worded in a way that is clear and concise and framed in a way that makes it easy for the respondents to answer.
The data analysis plan would involve using descriptive statistics to analyze the data collected from the survey. Descriptive statistics would be used to summarize the responses in frequency distributions, percentages, means, and other measures of central tendency (Olah, 2007). Additionally, inferential statistics could be used to compare the responses of different groups, such as male and female respondents, to determine if there is a statistically significant difference in their responses. Finally, regression analysis could be used to examine the relationships between the different variables and determine which factors are the most important in influencing income.
Experimental Design
The proposed experimental design will be a field experiment, as it can allow us to observe the impacts of gender on income in a real-world setting. The experiment will involve a sample of participants from different genders, income levels, and backgrounds (Bell, 2009). The sample will be chosen using a stratified random sampling technique, ensuring the sample accurately reflects the population of interest. The experiment will involve the participants engaging in various tasks and activities. These tasks will be selected to measure their knowledge, skills, and abilities in leadership, communication, problem-solving, and other related areas. The participants will be divided into two groups based on gender.
Once the tasks are complete, the participants’ results will be compared and analyzed for any differences between the two groups. In particular, we will be looking for any differences in income levels between the two groups. The experiment will also involve interviews with the participants to explore further any differences in income levels or other factors impacting the results. The interviews will be conducted via a structured questionnaire, allowing us to collect detailed information on the participants’ backgrounds, experiences, and perceptions of gender and income. After the experiment, the findings will be analyzed to answer the research question of how gender impacts income. The results of the experiment will be used to inform policy and programs to help address any disparities that may exist between genders.
Justification of Design
In this research project, I would choose survey design as the preferred method of gathering data. This decision is based on the fact that surveys are better suited for measuring non-experimental variables, such as gender and income. Additionally, surveys can provide a more comprehensive overview of the population being studied and offer the ability to measure differences in income between genders.
Regarding internal validity, surveys can measure variables of interest reliably and validly. This is because survey responses are often provided in a standardized format, eliminating potential sources of bias (Moss, 2021). Additionally, surveys allow for larger sample sizes, which increases the potential for statistical significance. In terms of external validity, surveys can also provide the ability to generalize the results of the study to a larger population. This is due to the fact that surveys are often distributed to a larger, diverse population, which increases the potential for generalizing the results. In terms of the ability to determine causality, surveys can provide the ability to measure relationships between variables and the impact of certain variables on other variables. This is due to the fact that surveys can measure the correlations between different variables, as well as measure the effect of one variable on another (Moss, 2021)r. Finally, in terms of ethical considerations, surveys are preferable due to the fact that survey respondents can remain anonymous, which eliminates the possibility of coercion or manipulation. Additionally, survey respondents are not exposed to any risks or harms, which further increases the ethicality of the research.
In conclusion, survey design is the preferred method of gathering data for this research project due to its ability to provide reliable, valid, and ethical results. Additionally, surveys can provide the ability to measure the impact of gender on income and the potential for generalizing the results to a larger population.
A quantitative method would be ideal for this research question since it would allow for the collection of data such as income and gender in order to analyze potential correlations between the two. This method would also allow for statistical analysis to determine the strength of the connections between gender and income and to identify any significant differences in income between genders. A quantitative method would allow for an analysis of the data collected and provide a more objective view of the impact of gender on income. It also allows for comparing the data across different groups and provides a more accurate picture of the trends. On the other hand, a qualitative method would provide a more subjective approach, focusing on individual cases and opinions rather than an overall comparison. The benefits of using a quantitative method to research this topic include the ability to measure the relationship between gender and income and make use of statistical methods to identify patterns and differences in the data. The limitations of this method are that it needs to consider the context of the data and may miss subtle differences between genders that may affect income.
Bibliography
Abdel-Raouf, F. and Buhler, P.M. (2020) “The impact of the gender pay gap,” The Gender Pay Gap, pp. 86–109. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003003731-8.
Arevik, A. (2022). Survey Design – Harvard University, Survey Design. Harvard Law School. Available at: https://hnmcp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Arevik-Avedian-Survey-Design-PowerPoint.pdf (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
Barroso, A. & Brown, A. (2022). The gender pay gap in the U.S. held steady in 2020, Pew Research Center. Pew Research Center. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/05/25/gender-pay-gap-facts/ (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
Bell S. (2009). Just a moment... Just a moment… https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/experimental-design
Corbett, C. & Hill, C. (2012). Graduating to a pay gap: The earnings of women and men one year after college graduation., American Association of University Women. American Association of University Women. 1111 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, DC 20036. Tel: 800-326-2289; Tel: 202-728-7602; Fax: 202-463-7169; e-mail: foundation@aauw.org; Web site: http://www.aauw.org. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED536572 (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hegewisch, A., Williams-Baron, E. and Williams-Baron, A.H.and E. (2020). The gender wage gap by occupation 2017 and race and ethnicity, IWPR. Available at: https://iwpr.org/iwpr-issues/esme/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation-2017-and-by-race-and-ethnicity/ (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
Jackson, C. (2020). Gender Discrimination in the Workplace: An Analysis of the Literature. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 10(2), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2020.102025
Moser, C. A., & Kalton, G. (1986). Survey methods in the social investigation (2nd ed.). Basingstoke, England: Gower.
Moss, A. (2021, June 24). What are survey validity and reliability? https://www.cloudresearch.com/resources/blog/survey-validity-and-reliability/
Olah J. (2007, May 24). Descriptive statistics: Definition, overview, types, example. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/descriptive_statistics.asp
Semoga, J. (2022) Income and poverty in the United States: 2019, Census.gov. Available at: https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2020/demo/p60-270.html (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
Survey Design – Harvard University (no date). Available at: https://hnmcp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Arevik-Avedian-Survey-Design-PowerPoint.pdf (Accessed: December 6, 2022).
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