Cinema as entertainment started in the late 1800s to early 1900s. Cinema was considered one of the technological advancements after the train; hence it became a form of attraction to curious individuals (Gunning, 1986). The first film to be made astonished many, and they attended the cinema to investigate the gadgets that could produce everyday events in a single shot. The posters advertising the cinema relied on their explanation of what tools would be used to shoot the film hence becoming a form of attraction. Different scholars such as Tom Gunning, Noel Burch, and Andre Gaudreault discussed in detail features that exemplified some films as primitive (Gunning,1986). Noel Burch using the examples of the fascinating films by the Lumiere brothers and Melies, identifies some characteristic that helps contemporary scholars understand early films. A proper understanding of the early films and cinema informs contemporary researchers of what styles, status, and other technical considerations were taken during shooting and how the current technology can be improved. It also helps recognize the unique work done by early filmmakers depending on limited technological advancement in the film industry.
From 1895 to 1905, films were little more than snapshots; however, with the growing conventions, they became complex and could contain complex narratives (Gunning,1994). It was a business that some individuals, such as Melies, were getting a living from. There was also the emergence of production and distribution companies that promoted the development of early films. Cinematography belonging to the Lumiere brothers became popular as it showcased documentary materials and the establishment of French primacy in the film industry. On the other hand, Melies showed fictional films that also attracted an audience, but with time, the fascination shifted to the most recent technology in cinema (Gunning, 1994). As a result, Melies ran out of business; however, he produced notable films such as a trip to the Moon in 1902 and the impossible voyage in 1904 (Gunning,1994). Both film producers paved the way for the new style with unique features. The institutional mode of representation that was taking over was focused on changing the mode in which films would be taken, for example, setting the camera far from the action to capture the whole event and inventing devices necessary to adjust the lighting and the theatrical effect.
The “cinema of attraction” is a term used to describe the early days of film, when movies were primarily a form of spectacle rather than storytelling (Abel, 2004). According to the theory developed by film scholars such as Georges Méliès, Louis Lumière, and Jean-Pierre Burch, the primary purpose of early films was to attract and entertain audiences with their visual spectacle than to tell a story or convey a message. Méliès, a French filmmaker, is considered one of the pioneers of the cinema of attraction. He is best known for using special effects, such as stop-motion animation and multiple exposures, to create fantastical and imaginative scenes. He used these techniques to create films such as “A Trip to the Moon” (1902), considered one of the earliest science fiction films, featuring a group of astronomers traveling to the Moon in a rocket-shaped capsule. The film was a considerable success and showcased the film’s potential as a medium for visual spectacle.
The Lumière brothers, Louis and Auguste, were also instrumental in developing the cinema of attraction (Pearson, 1996). They were among the first filmmakers to capture real-world events on film, such as “Arrival of a Train” (1895) and “Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory” (1895). These films were among the earliest examples of the documentary genre. They were known for their ability to capture the everyday life of people in a previously impossible way. These films were also considered attraction films, as people were fascinated by the ability of the films to capture reality in such a way. Jean-Pierre Burch, a French film theorist, and historian, further developed the concept of the cinema of attraction. He argued that early films were not intended to tell stories but to attract audiences with their visual spectacle. Burch also argued that the cinema of attraction was a precursor to the narrative-driven cinema that emerged later in the 20th century (Pearson, 1996). He suggested that the cinema of attraction was a transitional phase in the development of film as an art form and that it laid the foundation for the narrative-driven cinema that followed. The film industry depended on the abilities of the filmmakers to edit the snapshots to produce a meaningful narrative. The earlier films were of short duration compared to recent films that can extend for hours with a combination of different shooting styles.
Films during the early years were short and lasted only a few minutes. Usually shot in fairgrounds or anywhere a screen can be set. The room would be darkened to provide better illumination (Gunning,1995). Later the films would be accompanied by lectures, music, and a combination of audience participation. In the film, the ArrivalArrival of a train at Laciotat station, the film is shot diagonally with the train coming directly towards the camera. This marked the standard method of staging a shot for a considerable time before another angle was considered. The film, however, did not follow any theatrical practice as it would have required the filmmaker to set the camera perpendicular to the train station; hence as seen from how the shot was taken is primitive. Compared to the institutional mode of representation that was strictly theatrical, primitive cinema used simple techniques and camera styles that set the record for the proceeding developments. The camera was always set in a close-up manner. Hence some of the events failed to be captured within the frame of the film. However, with technological advancement, it became possible to shoot from all angles; so that all the necessary actions are captured within the frame of the film.
The cinema of attraction is an essential concept in the history of film. It refers to the early days of film when movies were primarily a spectacle rather than storytelling (Gunning,1995). The work of filmmakers such as Georges Méliès, Louis Lumière, and Jean-Pierre Burch has been crucial in shaping our understanding of the cinema of attraction and its place in the development of film as an art form. Méliès’s use of special effects, Lumière’s capturing real-world events on film, and Burch’s analysis of cinema of attraction as a precursor to the narrative-driven cinema all have contributed to the development of film as a medium and art form that we know today (Gunning,1995). Andre Gaudreault (1990) argues that the concept of the primitive mode of representation is characterized by short shots that involved an event. The film exemplifies the primitive mode of representation to a large extent as it is only concentrated on a clear event shot. The problem with such single shots is how the essential difference can be identified and differentiated. In films such as L’Arroscur arose and the birth of nation films, the difference between the duration and quantity plays a key role when differentiating it. Early filmic narratives termed primitive depend on mimesis because they lack the articulation of the various segments produced by the monstrator. However, the film narration developed over the century to what we see today as the recent films in cinemas.
According to Noel Burch, the primitive mode of representation illustrated its earliest manifestation. Films such as voyage dans la lune have a poor semantical structure compared to films with IMR (Pearson, 1996). The conception of editing that emerged among some French films changed the features of centering and linearity. As illustrated in earlier films, features such as shots taken with frontal and horizontal camera placement of the camera resulted in continuous maintenance of the long shot. Centrality is also a dominant feature depicted in earlier films. As discussed, the feature that can be used to differentiate the primitive mode of representation and institutional mode of representation is its ability to narrate the story. One apparent limitation of primitive films is the externality of events, as it assumes that the audience must be aware of the actions taking place in the film (Pearson, 1996). Tom gunning in his essay argues that the early films were analyzed and criticized through a one-sided method, and they have the potential to distort the work of the filmmakers. According to him, films have the role of creating effects necessary to perform tricks rather than it having a role to narrate. As seen with Lumiere and Mellies films, the former is aimed at presenting a narrative while the latter is non-narrative.
On the other hand, Burch opposes the idea that films exist in narrative form and non-narrative form. To Burch, however minimal, every shot has a beginning and an end; provided there is the destabilization of the equilibrium,m it qualifies as a narrative film. He uses the example of the Lumiere Brothers’ Arrival of a train at La Ciotat station; However, the events are shot in a random but short time. It illustrates an action of people boarding the train and new arrivals, tilting the equilibrium or state before the train arrives.
Tom’s Gunning view of early films.
In the article by Gunning and Gaudreault, there is a clear distinction in early films (Gunning,1995). They can be categorized into two categories; cinema of attraction and system of narrative integration. They argue that some films possessed the feature of attraction and could not narrate a story. In their analysis, they pay attention to the question of the impact of the performances on the audience. They also identified that audiences were attracted to the idea of cinematography instead of the events showcased in the cinema (Gunning,1995). Therefore, the cinema of attraction was considered performance-based compared to narrative-based, as argued by Gunning. They argue that short films were meant to bring attraction while lengthy films had more monstration towards the spectator. Films such as A Trip to the Moon showed an advancement from the primitive mode of presentation because of advanced editing (Gunning,1995). The film was unusually lengthy without cuts. The film was done in four shots in less than twenty seconds. Compared to the short films aimed at attraction, A Train to the Moon is considered an excellent example of a film with an explicit narrative and storyline. Although films such as Melies lack sound, the actions in the film clearly narrate the story explicitly.
Another challenge Tom notes with the early films is differentiating them as either narrative or non-narrative (Gaudreault & Gunning, 2006). He argues that even single-shot films communicate a message. In films such as L’Arroseur Arrose (the waterer watered), the frame alone, without the extension of the sound systems and other accompaniments, narrates a story that the audience can connect. When pieced together, the single shots can narrate a story individually or as a whole. Therefore, Tom and Gaudreault agree that the problem of differentiation becomes problematic as it disqualifies the definition of narrative. Therefore, as opposed to Burch idea of differentiation, most films communicate a narrative independently, either when presented in a form-framed image or a completely silent film.
According to Tom, despite the difference in the categorization of early films, earlier films were majorly aimed at presenting a set of series rather than illustrating a specific story with an opening, action, and conclusion (Pearson, 1996). Films made in 1900 exhibited this feature. The cinema of attraction is aimed at showing something rather than showcasing unique and fascinating events that spark the imagination. It focused on capturing the attention of the audience. He argues that early films illustrated exhibitionism, a series of erotic films mainly including full nudity. This feature however disappeared with the development of films. As illustrated in Noel Burch’s film correction please: how we got into pictures (1979), the conflict between exhibitionistic tendencies and the creation of fictional diagenesis in the early films is explained. Unlike Noel, Tom argues that early films demonstrated the primitive mode of representation by reflecting the lack of a self-sufficient narrative world in the films. The mode of the exhibition also demonstrated the primitive mode of representation because the films were comprised of non-narrative shots without sound effects. These were shots of people moving in and out of trains and other shots related to the usual activities performed by individuals. However, with the emergence of the advancement of technology, sounds, and other spoken commentaries could be added. The shots, according to Tom, were precursors in which they would be combined to form a demonstration that is evidenced in modern-day cinema.
Another idea that attracted audiences to the cinema is the curiosity to check the new technology, such as phonographers and machines used to capture the shots (Pearson, 1996). Considering this was the first technological advancement of the century, it attracted more curious audiences to the machines. The fact that the billboards also premiered the use of these machines attracted more attention hence it differs from the contemporary films that aim at exhibiting narratives. It displays and attracts audiences as a right in itself. Hence the quality of the exhibition attracted the avant-garde and other forms of art, such as music. With the emergence of mass culture in 1900, avant-garde and films were gaining popularity, attracting audiences not accustomed to traditional art to check on the films but those who liked freedom from the creation of the diagenesis and its direct stimulation (Pearson, 1996). The challenge, however, with categorizing films as either attractive or narrative can be damaging as analyzing them within the context of an archive or academy could lead to the risk of isolating the place it was shot and its time in history.
The earlier films lacked the technique of expansion that was later used after 1902 because the films lacked the enlargement of the narratives. Hooligan in Jail (1903) and other films that used this feature include photographing a female crook (1904). For them to gain attraction, the camera would zoom the main character to express the need to attract the audience’s attention. The primitive mode, therefore, exhibits the turn of events from attraction to the new idea of avant-Garde, which was conceived to have oppositional programs. There was a growing liking for the growth of narrative films that had more quantity and quality. Avant- Garde provided enough resources for a carnival feel to the cinema. During the 1900s, exhibitions such as Coney Island and Un Chien Andalou (1928) can be traced from Melies through Keaton. Therefore, just like the trains advanced in their form and operation, primitive films later advanced and expanded both in quality and length.
As Tom Gunning argues on the cinema of attraction, the main aim of attractions is to solicit attention, inciting visual curiosity and pleasure through spectacles. According to him, the unique event, whether acted, factual, or documentary (Gunning, 1989). Films such as How it feels to be run over by Cecil Hepworth (1900) attracted audiences who derived pleasure from the showcased spectacles. Although the films were short, they attracted an audience because cinema was gaining popularity as entertainment. Therefore, according to Tom, the essence of the cinema of attraction was aimed at enhancing visibility. A film that fully utilized visibility is Melies 1902 film Voyage to the Moon. The frame showcasing it was visualized to bring out the creator’s intention. Although there were a few voyages to the Moon at the time, the film’s frame sparked the audience’s imagination. Therefore, Melies films were not only fictional but also visionary of what was to happen later. Although he refused to adjust to the change in the film industry, he remains one of the respected filmmakers of the time. Famous scholars have utilized his films to explain essential features of early cinema and films. They have become a base on which criticism is made.
Noel Burch’s view of earlier films.
Noel Burch termed early films primitive mode representation because of four significant traits (Burch, 1990). These traits according to Noel are simplistic in their narration and technically. The traits include the non-closure of narratives due to a lack of sound effects and editing techniques; hence the audience relied on extra information from live commentators and the audience’s familiarity with the events being showcased in the film. The films were also followed by lecturers that explained what is happening to the curious spectators—films such as Uncle Tom’s cabin required lectures (Burch, 1990). The non-closure nature of films means that they have incomplete narratives because they are short. The narratives need to be self-sufficient in bringing the film to an end. Non-closure also concerns its status as a film and structure.
The other trait is the autarky and unicity of each frame. The frames of the films remained unchanged throughout the scenes as most were independent. The shots were taken in a simple scene that would be consistent throughout the film. The reason was the need for more advanced technology to change the frames and the physical environment of the scenes. Recent films have changing frames and scenes for every action; hence Noel argues that the earlier films, especially Melies, were of primitive mode because of the rigidity and autarky of frames. In films by the Lumiere brothers, the ArrivalArrival of a train at La Ciotat station, from the beginning of the film to the end, the frame remains the same (Burch, 1990).
The non-centered quality of the image is yet another trait that defines early films. The edges of the images were consistent with the medium; the frame was also at the center while the camera distance was always long. With the lack of editing features the images and films were always uncentered. The alignment of the camera to the action was triangular, and the action was not happening at the center of the frame. The action taking place in different positions for some critics argue that it helps visibility while some claim it hinders the film’s visibility (Burch, 1990). Noel Burch argues that although the films have the non-closure ability in their narration, because of their rudimentary stories, they manifest themselves as the action continues even when the film stops recording (Musser, 1994). Therefore, films such as Gay shoe clerk (1903), with their uneventful ending, are assumed to have continued after the film ended. The contrast between the early and recent films is the ability to control the film’s ending. Noel argues that most early films with primitive mode representation had mechanical and arbitrary endings that left the audience to imagine how the film would have ended.
Noel Burch also identified that early films lacked a central character as the events were not structured, and the events were random. It also depended on the circulation of signs that were used by the majority of the filmmakers. In the modern film industry, it can be considered piracy or plagiarism. However, there were no legal provisions to protect original signs at the time. Therefore, the majority of the early films employed the language of gestures that depended on human support for explanations. Compared to films after 1920, most had the main character with a storyline that all the actions follow (Musser, 1994). The lack of a main character is attributed to the film’s intentions to make spectacles lined with tricks that every performer was expected to do; hence, assigning dominant roles to one character and leaving the other would be challenging. Additionally, the shooting spin was also short hence the performers aimed at using the allotted time to make as many tricks as possible for the amusement of the audience.
Burch evidence on the primitive mode of representation.
The initial argument Burch had concerning early films is the primitive presentation mode. The primitive mode of representation was characterized by traits such as the non-closure of the narratives (Burch, 1990). Because the films were short and random, critics considered them a form of attraction rather than narrative oriented. According to Burch, these films varied in length and structure. According to him, some films do not qualify as narrative films because the beginning and the end have no apparent relation and meaning. Some ended abruptly with actions midway.
In the same way, some highlighted films have rigid frames; hence transition of a narrative does not match the preceding actions. However, other films showed the primitive mode even though they created a unique poetry of their own, a feature of institutional cinema (Burch, 2014). Other films, such as L’Envers du theatre, had an uncertain genre that was neither primitive nor institutional; however, some critics argue that it had more condensation of the primitive mode because it comprised three shots that were stencil-tinted. This film gives the impression that it was produced from different sources. Hence it has been considered one of the unique films of the time. Other original primitive films include The Kentucky Feud and Tom, Tom, the Piper’s Son, two biograph films by Bitzer. Most films displayed a non-centered approach codified to pass sufficient narratives with a beginning and an end.
The transition from the primitive to the institutionalized mode of representation.
After the turn of the century, the primitive mode of representation disappeared due to the emergence of the institutional mode of representation of films. Avant- Garde films became the hallmark of the domination of the theory (Hansen, 1993). Noel Burch on the individuals that discussed a lot concerning early films aimed at showing that the institutional mode of representation was a determined class practice that was biased. According to Burch, all films presented an elaborate and realistic system compared to other critics such as Tom Gunning, who believed that the institutional mode of representation had elaborated and expanded structure and narrative form. Burch argues that the IMR was characterized by its intention to create a complete and closed fictional world on the screen (Hansen, 1993). This results in the audience being involved imaginatively in the events happening in the film rather than them being a separate entity with curiosity to examine the film techniques and not the film itself.
The primitive mode of representation also referred to as the early films were constructed out of single shots, each with a different story and event to showcase (Cook,1992). However, because of the advanced editing techniques, the institutional representation mode utilizes close-ups. It also employed characters who are psychologically individuated to bring out the close-ups of faces and acting methods that were borrowed. As a result, most films would take place around the viewer so that psychological depth is achieved. The narratives, therefore, are motivated by the character’s psychology. Although the modes of understanding early cinema have sparked controversial discussions among film critics and scholars, it is clear that early cinema lack in terms of structures and realism.
Gunning’s concept of primitive cinema is problematic.
From the analysis by famous critics such as Frank Norris (1899), the concept of primitive cinema, as Burch coined, has issues that affect the interpretation of the films (Mottram, 1983). First, the cinema itself was an attraction in itself. From the conversations recorded by Maxim Gorky (1896) with spectators, it is clear that the audience was more interested in the tricks being performed (Gunning, 1995). The events and actions showcased were aimed at creating amazement and sparking curiosity hence the concept of primitive cinema according to Tom Gunning, is problematic because it lacked a piece of specific institutional evidence that defines an actual film. According to him, most films cannot be categorized as narrative-oriented, as most are short and random.
Other early scholars of primitive cinema
Unlike other critics and scholars such as Noel Burch and Tom Gunning, who dealt with the film’s structures, status, and forms, there are other feminist critics such as Yujie Zhang (Dong, 2021). The films spanning the silent era include the cabbage fairy (1896). According to her, the silent era only partially disappeared with the emergence of sound patterns in 1910. As she argues in her twenty-one essays, she expounds on the role of women in the cinema. According to her, women played a vital role in the production of films because although the males directed and edited the films, the women acted in the fictional films and should be recognized (Dong, 2021). As a feminist, she believes that inequality in the film industry can be eliminated if only the male gender would recognize women’s talent and unique abilities.
Another scholar who discussed the issue of early films and their influence on present-day cinema is Gaudreault, who argues that all films are narratives (Gaudreault, 1987). The subject matter, either animated or inanimate, presents a narrative form. He argues that provided there is an introduction of an event that upsets the equilibrium of the space, then however short the film is, it depicts a narrative that continues even after the film is cut. To him, the spectators and the audience have the mandate to imagine the end of the action alone. The fact that the films were silent meant that a follow-up conversation would occur between the filmmaker and the audience.
After considering the different theories and ideas concerning early films, Tom Gunning’s theory is correct and reasonable because of the following issues; any image or film requires an event and characters in the play to create a narrative. Films created during the early period were short and random; however, there were characters and events in the play. The example of The Waterer Watered, the flow of actions in the film, however short it may be, illustrates a continuous narrative even after the film ends. Therefore, it would be problematic to say that some films are non-narrative (Gaudreault, 1987). As Tom argued in his view of the early cinema, some limitations may hinder the expansion of the films because the disjointed shots may be narrating different stories. However, the varied narratives can understand as independent hence there should be no categorization.
Noel Burch’s theory is partially correct because it formed the basis for criticizing films. The components, such as the structure and status he mentions, play a key role when analyzing an image or film. Therefore, as much as structures and status remain consistent throughout the films, they can narrate an event. Although most films at the time had abrupt endings and unplanned beginnings, the actions between films have sufficient information for better understanding. During that time, silent cinema was characterized by a follow-up conversation by commentators who elaborated on the action showcased in the cinema.
In conclusion, early cinema, also known as primitive cinema, has advanced periodically with the changing technological trends. Early scholars who studied the influence of early cinema on contemporary cinema believe that it was the hallmark initiated by the train’s first film. The emergence of editing technology ensures that films with considerable length and quality pick pace. Several theories aimed at explaining the earlier films in terms of structure, status, and content, and scholars such as Noel Burch and Tom Gunning coined some currently used to understand the early films. Such terms include the primitive mode of representation and institutional mode of representation. The two had differing ideas concerning early films because of the classification as to whether all films are narrative-oriented or trick and spectacle oriented. Noel Burch argues that most early films displayed a primitive mode that made to have specific traits such as the non-closure nature of narratives and their ability to be autarky which made them independent and rigid to change. However, Tom opposes the idea with the claim that however short a film can be, it communicates; therefore, all films are narrative. Using the example of various films produced during the 1900s, Tom argues that provided the equilibrium of the events has been tilted, the film qualifies as a narrative. Generally, both scholars agree that early films formed the basis for modern films in terms of structure and other essential aspects of the cinema. Filmmakers such as Melies and Lumiere brothers played a role in the film industry although their efforts may have yet to be recognized at the present.
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