Part 1
- Explain how an endangered animal like a panda or a rhinoceros can become an asset and to what end.
Although endangered animals like pandas or rhinoceros face risks of extinction, they can become useful assets when protected. This can be achieved through conservation approaches aiming to protect their populations and habitats. For instance, a panda can become a useful asset to the local economies through ecotourism. In this way, tourists can visit and pay to see rhinoceros in their natural habitats thus generating jobs and revenue for the local community.
- In what ways are the temporalities of development and humanitarianism different? How and why are the two frames of aid and intervention increasingly converging? Give one example.
The temporalities of development and humanitarianism are closely related but are different approaches. For instance, while development focuses on achieving long-term structural changes in society, humanitarianism provides immediate relief to respond to crises and emergencies. In recent years, the two interventions have demonstrated convergence and one reason for this is the increasing recognition that development efforts must consider the immediate needs of the people. Additionally, it can be attributed to the growing awareness that emergencies and crises are often the manifestations of poor underpinning structural issues requiring long-term solutions. An example of how development and humanitarianism converge is through the concept of resilience which has become popular in the development and aid sector. Resilience is the ability to withstand and recover from shocks and stress either natural or economic. A recent example is the 2023 earthquake in Turkey and Syria. Humanitarian and international organizations provided immediate relief to the affected individuals but also recognized the need to address the vulnerability of these countries to other earthquakes. Efforts are in place to move people from the fault lines and build resilient structures like those in Japan.
- How does the 1994 Zapatista uprising in Chiapas mobilize both residual and emergent cultural practices and symbols in their struggle against a dominant order?
The 1994 Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico is popular for its resistance against the dominant order. The uprising was exceptional as it mobilized both emergent and residual cultural practices and symbols while struggling against the dominant order. Residual cultural practices and symbols are those inherited from the past and continued to persist in the present regardless of the efforts of the dormant cultures to suppress them. These included indigenous language, music, dress, communal agriculture, and traditional forms of governance. The Zapatistas mobilized these cultural practices and symbols to assert their own identity challenging the dormant order. Equally, the Zapatistas mobilized the emergent cultural practices and symbols such as new resistance forms and a ski mask. This reflected the uprising’s efforts to create a new and more inclusive form of resistance.
- How might an infrastructural project of development inspire both terror and admiration? What is the name given to such an aesthetic of exaltation? Was it always related to technology? Give one example.
An infrastructural project of development can inspire both terror and admiration because of its scale, size, and impact on the community as well as the environment. This phenomenon is referred to as the technological sublime. The term technological sublime describes the experience of awe and wonders often attributed to the scale and power of technology as well as infrastructural projects. The term was not always related to technology and was popularly known as sublime dating decades ago. However, with the booming of technology in the twentieth century, the term took to the technology itself. An example of an infrastructure inspiring both terror and admiration is the Hoover DAM in the U.S. It is massive and impacted the community. For instance, its construction displaced thousands of people and led to the rerouting Colorado River affecting the downstream ecosystem. On the other hand, it provided hydroelectric power and water to transform arid areas of Southeast regions.
- True or False? Provide a justification.
* Most infrastructures can be considered as existing in a state of unfinishedness.
True. This is because most infrastructures are always under progressive development thus, they are subject to persistent maintenance and repair. Also, most infrastructures may require modification and expansion due to technological advancements and changes in economic and social conditions.
* The same economic relations underpin both development and sustainability.
False. The same economic relations may not necessarily underlie both development and sustainability. While development is the economic growth and expansion of markets and trade at the expense of environmental sustainability as well as social equality, sustainability is the balancing of social, economic, and environmental factors to meet both current and future needs without overexploiting natural resources. Hence, although economic conditions are crucial in development and sustainability, the objectives of the two approaches are different.
Part 2
Prompt A
Development produces different forms of inequality that affect humans and non-humans alike. What are the different forces implicated in that? How do affected communities respond? Discuss at least three examples of inequalities and one example of political mobilization and make sure you provide a conceptual definition for each in your own words.
Development in its entirety has been associated with improved living conditions and reduced independence among communities. This has to do with improved economic and social factors. However, although development is associated with better life quality, it should be noted that the occurrence of development may result in numerous social inequalities. Professionals have different views and understandings of development. For instance, Li in her Land’s End describe development as prosperity in which she explains how her community in Indonesia was betrayed by settlers. Li’s approach toward development is embedded in the fact that development is an improved lifestyle.[1] She notes that her communities were promised goodies in terms of infrastructure and land use improvement to increase their income and livelihood only to realize that elites were just taking advantage of the land owners. Her understanding of development significantly differs from Annand, Gupta, and Appel’s perspective. This is because Annand, Gupta and Appel discuss that development is multifaceted ranging from the individual level to the government or state levels. They note that personal development is associated with increased knowledge and better economic, social, and well-being of an individual. They also observe that development greatly relies on the interaction between a person and others which in essence creates a social interaction. However, both Li and Anand, Guiupta, and Appel bring out the broader issue of development by exploring the changes needed. Rodney on the other hand accuses the settlers of developing Africa. They note that the whole of Africa is underdeveloped due to dependence on the colonizers.
Even with numerous positive outcomes, development can result in numerous inequality forms affecting both humans and non-human beings. Forces, contributing to these inequalities may include resource extraction, economic globalization, and environmental degradation. Such forces often result in wealth and power concentration in the hands of a few while disenfranchising and marginalizing others which prompts the affected communities to respond.[2] They may respond through political mobilization, social movements, and grassroots organizations ranging from protests to advocacy for policy change like the one experienced by the movement Black lives matter.
Many inequalities are associated with development. For instance, development can lead to economic inequality and uneven distribution of wealth and income in a society. While development may promise a fruitful future, it often exacerbates economic inequalities by facilitating a small elite group to benefit while leaving many behind.[3] For instance, Anand, Gupta, and Appel state that,
“The settlers’ town is strongly built, all made of stone and steel. It is a brightly lit town; the streets are covered with asphalt, and the garbage cans swallow all the leavings, unseen, and unknown and hardly thought about. . . . the town belonging to the colonized people . . . is a world without spaciousness; men live there on top of each other, and their” huts are built one on top of the other. The native town is a hungry town, starved of bread, of meat, of shoes, of coal, of light” (Anand. Gupta, and Appel 2018, p. 1).
They try to paint the picture of the false promises by the settlers. In this case, settlers came with promises of developing the local community only to end up favouring the few elite groups. This is a similar case to the farmers in Indonesia as described by Li. While reflecting, she observes that farmers were cheated on the issue of customary rights of land ownership in which many farmers ended up losing their land to settlers and foreign powers. While explaining the basis of her title “Land’s End” she states that
Land’s End is about the attempt made by indigenous highlanders to join the march of progress promised in modernization narratives, only to encounter the polarizing effect of the capitalist relations that soon emerged among them. Farmers able to accumulate land and capital prospered, and those who could not compete were squeezed out. (p.1)
Li in this statement provides the picture and unfolds how indigenous farmers were lured and lost their land through the enticement that development will enable them to diversify their cultivation. To their surprise, very few farmers retained their land ownership while the majority lost to the capitalist.
Also, development can result in cultural inequality whereby the dormant cultures suppress or eradicate traditions, language, and knowledge associated with the marginalized. This is often through imposing dominant cultural norms and practices to displace marginalized cultures and minority groups. For instance, Black people residing in Detroit, U.S.A have experienced discrimination based on colour and race to appoint of being denied water supply.[4] Another inequality due to development is environmental inequality, which is the distribution of environmental hazards. They may include toxic waste and pollution across communities. Marginalized communities as well as low-income neighbourhoods are more likely to be disproportionately affected by environmental hazards causing health-related issues, economic challenges, and declined life expectancy.
Political Mobilization in response to inequalities may take different forms. For instance, the movement for black lives matter in the U.S is an example of political mobilization addressing social inequalities and discrimination based on colour.[5] Anand Gupta and Appel write that “Detroit and Flint are predominantly black cities. Here, water infrastructure is a socio-material terrain for the reproduction of racism.”[6] It implies that water resources have been used to discriminate against Black people. The movement often advocates for policy change to prioritize the needs and concerns of Black people. It utilizes many approaches such as efforts to increase equality and reduce discrimination.
Bibliography
Anand, Nikhil, Akhil Gupta, and Hannah Appel, eds. The promise of infrastructure. Duke University Press, 2018. Pp. 223-243
Li, Tania Murray. Land’s end: Capitalist relations on an indigenous frontier. Duke University Press, 2014.pp1-29
Li, Tania Murray. The will to improve: Governmentality, development, and the practice of politics. duke university Press, 2007. 1-374
Rodney, Walter. How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Verso Books, 2018.pp.1-394
[1] Li. Land’s end: Capitalist relations on an indigenous frontier. Duke University Press, 2014.pp1-29
[2] Rodney. ‘How Europe Underdeveloped Africa’ 1981, pp1-29
[3] LI. ‘The Will to Improve: Governmentality, Development, and the Practice of Politics’. 2007. pp. 1-30
[4] Anand, Gupta, and Appel. The promise of Infrastructure. 2018, p. 1
[5] Anand, Gupta, and Appel. The promise of Infrastructure. 2018. Pp. 223-243
[6] Anand, Gupta, and Appel. The promise of Infrastructure. 2018. Pp. 223-243
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