Introduction
Using motivating operations, stimulus class, verbal behavior, and derived stimulus relations may effectively teach complicated verbal techniques and address behavioral issues. This study explores the distinctions between starting and stopping activities. We shall explain why they are employed as part of a behavior modification approach. Before going on to the next topic, each form of Differential Reinforcement will be explained and shown, followed by a discussion on how to use support to reduce behavior. This section will define stimulus and stimulus classes and provide examples. The paper shall include a case study on prompt fading and transferring stimulus control.
1: Motivating Operations & Reinforcement
Establishing and Abolishing Operations
Motivational factors include the establishment and termination of activities.
Motivational factors play a crucial role in applied behavior analysis for addressing and managing problematic behavior. Laraway, Snycerski, Michael, and Poling (2003) define motivating operations as occurrences in the environment that affect the significance of reinforcers and punishers. Motivating operations may be separated into two categories: establishing and abolishing operations. Laraway et al. (2003) differentiate between activities that either increase or reduce the reinforcing effects of stimuli. Establishing operations increases reinforcer efficacy, whereas abolishing operations lowers it. This is the primary distinction between establishing and abolishing operations. Establishing operations improves the efficacy of stimuli, whereas abolishing operations reduces their effectiveness.
Manipulating motivating operations to modify behavior may be quite effective. It might work wonders because motivation is always changing. After changing motivation, the next step is to identify the present motivation. Giving a child who is not permitted to consume soda the option to get it as a reward for doing chores might inspire them to finish chores. This is considered an establishing operation as the individual is driven to gain what they are lacking. If a person regularly consumes soda, they may lack motivation to finish their responsibilities. This would be called an abolishing operation. However, individual motivations vary. The changes might occur in response to age or the level of interest in the stimulus. For instance, if a person is thirsty (deprivation), a glass of water has a substantially higher reinforcing effect, which is an establishing operation.
In behavioral change interventions, influencing and establishing operations entails finding and exploiting situations that boost the value of a targeted outcome. For example, if someone wishes to push a kid to complete their schoolwork, they might manage the establishing operation by letting the child play video games only when they have completed their responsibilities. This improves the reinforcing effect of playing video games, making it more likely that schoolwork will be completed.
On the other hand, abolishing operations reduces the reinforcing value of the outcome. For example, if someone has just finished a huge meal, the reinforcing value of food declines since they are no longer starving. In behavior change interventions, modifying AOs entails finding and mitigating factors that reduce the value of an undesirable outcome. For instance, if someone wishes to lessen a child’s tantrums in a grocery store, they may make sure the kid has eaten before going shopping, lowering the reinforcing value of getting a snack.
Rule governed and Contingency-Shaped Behaviors
Rule-governed behaviors are impacted by verbal commands, rules, or contingency descriptions. For example, when someone understands traffic restrictions as outlined in a driver’s manual, their behavior is rule-governed. Contingency-shaped behaviors, on the other hand, are taught by direct contact with the environment, in which outcomes affect conduct without explicit verbal instruction. For instance, in an operant instruction room, a rat learns to press a lever for food reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement entails providing a desirable stimulus to improve the chance of a behavior repeating. Giving a kid a sticker for doing chores, for instance, raises the probability that they will do them again.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement involves reducing an aversive stimulus to improve the chance of a behavior reoccurring. One example is shutting off a loud alarm by waking up early, which reinforces the habit of waking up early.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment entails providing an aversive stimulus to reduce the chance of a behavior reoccurring. For example, punishing a dog for chewing on furniture may reduce the frequency of such activity.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment is eliminating a desired stimulus to reduce the chance of a behavior repeating. For example, removing a teen’s phone privileges for violating curfew may reduce the risk of future lateness.
Extinction
Extinction happens when previously reinforced activity no longer yields reinforcement, resulting in a decline in its frequency. A kid throwing tantrums for attention is one example; if parents persistently disregard the tantrums, they may ultimately fade away.
2: Stimulus Control, Maintenance, and Generalization
Stimulus and Stimulus Class
A stimulus refers to an entity/occurrence that causes a reaction or alters behavior. Cooper et al. (2020) define a stimulus class as a group of stimuli that have a set of common components across one or more dimensions. An excellent instance of a stimulus is eating due to hunger. The trigger is hunger, and the response is to eat. An example of a stimulus class is noise categorization. Common loud noises include fire alarms, smoke detectors, and alarm systems. All of these items produce loud noises when they need to be informed.
Stimulus Control
Cooper et al. (2020) define stimulus control as behavior that happens more frequently in the presence of a discrimination stimulus than in its absence. Stimulus control occurs when a person encourages a certain behavior by refusing to offer reinforcement for undesirable conduct. Behavior is restricted when the reward is unachievable. Traffic lights are a fantastic example of stimuli control. When the light turns green, the motorist knows to proceed. When the traffic light turns red, the motorist knows to stop. The stimulus is the light’s color. The reaction determines whether the motorist continues or stops. Traffic lights are common in daily life. Whether one has a license or not, the traffic light might become a generalization. Traffic lights play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and mobility of vehicles on the road. The green signal is an excellent illustration of discrimination traffic stimuli. The stimulus is the green light, and the reaction is to push the acceleration pedal. The reinforcing stimulus is the ability to keep on driving without stopping.
3: Review of Jasmine’s Case
In Jasmine’s instance, the aim is for her to be able to write her name autonomously when given a worksheet, rather than relying on her instructor to provide an SD (“Write your name”) or having her name prewritten for tracing. To do this, one may use a systematic method that includes fading response and stimulus prompts, as well as differential reinforcement, as part of a target behavior retention plan.
Response prompt fading entails progressively lowering Jasmine’s support as she learns to write her name on her own. At first, the instructor may physically guide Jasmine’s hand to help her create the letters of her name. As Jasmine improves, the instructor can progressively reduce the amount of physical support she provides until she can write her name completely on her own.
Stimulus prompt fading entails shifting control from less important stimuli (e.g., the teacher’s command to “Write your name”) to more relevant stimuli (e.g., the blank spot on the worksheet where Jasmine’s name should be written). At first, the instructor may need to directly tell Jasmine to write her name. But with time, the instructor can progressively reduce the frequency or clarity of the guidance up until Jasmine is ready to write her name without the clear prompt.
Coupled with response and stimulus prompt fading, differential reinforcement can assist in reinforcing and sustaining Jasmine’s autonomous writing of her name. This includes offering reinforcement (e.g., praise and awards) when Jasmine writes her name without assistance, but not when she relies on prompts or help. By regularly praising independent activity while withdrawing reinforcement for prompted or helped action, Jasmine learns that writing her name autonomously has favorable results, which reinforces this behavior over time.
As part of a maintenance plan, Jasmine’s progress should be evaluated regularly and the fading techniques adjusted as appropriate. This guarantees that she continues to gain independence in writing her name without resorting to prompts or assistance. In addition, allowing Jasmine to practice writing her name in a variety of situations and materials can assist in generalizing her abilities and promote long-term retention.
Jasmine may progressively move to autonomously writing her name on her worksheets by consistently using response and stimulus prompt fading strategies, as well as differential reinforcement. This method not only encourages autonomy and self-reliance but also lays the groundwork for future autonomous academic skills development.
4: Verbal Behavior
Verbal Behavior Paradigm
According to Cooper et al. (2020), operant behavior is mostly driven by past consequences. The goal of operant behavior is to produce effects. Operant behavior occurs spontaneously before reward is introduced. According to de Lourdes R da F Passos (2012), verbal behavior is reinforced by a mediator based on community traditions. Skinner distinguishes between verbal and nonverbal operant behavior based on environmental selection criteria and response dimensions (de Lourdes R da F Passos, M. 2012). Here is when the ABC model comes into play. The ABC model explains behavior by recognizing the stimulus, reaction, and reinforcement. The ABC paradigm aims to eradicate undesirable behavior and promote suitable behavior.
Verbal Operant in ABA and Examples
Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2020) propose a behavioral study of expressive and receptive language to identify the underlying factors that influence speaker and listener behavior. The primary verbal operants include mand, tact, echoic, textual, intraverbal, and transcription. These operants are teaching methods of language. They concentrate on facilitating interpersonal interaction and comprehension.
Mand is only a request. Mand communicates a speaker’s demands and desires to the listener (Cooper et al., 2020). According to Fisher et al. (2021), motivating operants help preserve the operation of a mand. Other methods of communication include eye contact, gestures, sign language, vocal commands, PECS, and phones. Using two-word commands can assist clients develop their language. To obtain their favorite item or activity, the customer must ask for it using the two words “mands.” For instance, when someone wants to play catch, they just say “catch.” The child must now say “play catch” or “catch, please.” The motive for the activity prompts him to employ two-word commands. This keeps one from having to ask him what he wants.
Tact is also known as labeling. Cooper et al. (2020) define tact as a speaker’s capacity to vocally identify the physical components of their surroundings. Tact involves labeling items based on their sensory perception. Cooper et al. (2020) found that tact is maintained by a conditioned generalized reinforcer and does not have a direct point-to-point relationship. Tact is the only verbal connection that includes a nonverbal discriminative stimulus. For instance, when a child is shown a picture of a dog, they may wonder, “What is it?” However, the child reacts with “dog” and “woof woof,” which is tactful. To teach him/her new terms and things, it takes tacting to ensure his understanding.
Echoic means repeating someone. If a child is taught to “say book,” he will repeat it. When introducing new words, it may be necessary to remove the word “say” to prevent the client from repeating the entire sentence. According to Cooper et al. (2020), echoic communication involves point-to-point connection, a conditioned generalized reinforcer, and formal similarities.
Textual is rote reading, which is referred to as sight words. A written word is given for the client to read. During breaks, children typically exercise sight words with flash cards as a kind of textual learning. Textual learning allows students to focus on word identification rather than understanding the text. Cooper et al. (2020) define textual consequences as conditioned generalized reinforcers resulting from point-to-point behavior matching without formal resemblance.
Intraverbals are a beneficial strategy to utilize with kids. Intraverbals are frequently referred to as “fill in the blanks”. Cooper, Heron, & Heward (2020) suggest that the intraverbal form of response is controlled by a verbal discriminative stimulus that corresponds to the verbal response product. Intraverbal cues are frequently seen in everyday situations. Intraverbals include phrases like “you dive in ____,” “the book on the ___,” “1, 2, ___,” and “dive in ___.” Responding to intraverbal cues without prompting earns increasing appreciation. To boost confidence, keep the newest intraverbals until the final. Praising the child when he correctly understands the new intraverbal communication adds to cognition.
The term transcription refers to writing and spelling. Whenever you ask a client to spell or write their name, they will. This is transcriptional behavior. Transcription, like text, does not need an understanding of the written or typed words. Cooper et al. (2020) found a point-to-point connection between the stimulus and response output, without formal resemblance.
5: Derived Stimulus Relations
Derived Stimulus Relations
According to Cooper et al. (2020), there is an indirect relationship between two or more stimuli based on associated instruction or experience. Skinner’s experiments revealed behavioral differences between humans and other species. Different results were seen when reinforcement schedules were displayed. Lowe (1979) suggested that the evolution of human language led to significant disparities between species. Derived stimulus relations do not represent learned or taught behavior. One stimulus requires the other to work properly.
Even if verbal behavior is learned, it can also be trained through derived stimuli. For instance, a child who learns to read the word “car” can identify it on a flashcard or other written form. While driving, someone else connects the sight word to the actual automobile on the road. The customer learned to speak and read “car” but not its physical appearance. This example illustrates the relationship between saying and reading a word. The child connected with the bodily form that was not a taught behavior. As the child learns, they will increase their vocabulary and ability to recognize new items and words. As they build new connections, their growth and intellect improve. Clients with strong verbal and cognitive abilities are more likely to associate common sight words with physical items in the future.
Stimulus Equivalence
The components of stimulus equivalence include reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. Reflexivity is also called ‘identity matching.’ When a kid learns to read their name, they tend to recognize it on the board. Symmetry is the recognition that two items represent the same notion. When a child recognizes the term “dog,” can point to a dog, and understand that dogs bark. Transitivity occurs when one set is comparable to another. Consider a math issue. If 2+2 equals 4 and 2 X 2 equals 4, then 2+2 = 2×2. Despite differing approaches, the solution remains the same: matching. Stimulus equivalence facilitates learning by matching or combining similar items. Similar to derived stimulus connections, recognizing acquired and unlearned abilities becomes easier.
Conclusion
Motivating operations, stimulus class, verbal behavior, and derived stimulus relationships aid in teaching sophisticated verbal procedures and addressing behavior issues. Applied behavior analysis relies heavily on motivational factors to support and correct problematic behavior. The purpose of applied behavior analysis is to reduce undesired behavior and develop suitable behavior. Motivational operations fall into two groups, which might impact their efficacy. Differential reinforcement can effectively decrease incorrect conduct without being unduly invasive. Combining motivating operations and differential reinforcement can encourage deliberate conduct while reducing improper behavior. Stimulus control refers to the process of reinforcing a behavior by withholding reinforcement when it is undesirable. Behavior is restricted when the reward is unachievable. Elementary verbal operants teach linguistic skills that promote communication and comprehension.
References
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd Ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
de Lourdes R da F Passos M. (2012). B. F. Skinner: the writer and his definition of verbal behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 35(1), 115-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392270
Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., & Roane, H. S. (2021). Handbook of applied behavior analysis.The Guilford Press.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. (2003). Motivating operations and terms to describe them: some further refinements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(3), 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-407
LeGray, M. W., Dufrene, B. A., Sterling-Turner, H., Olmi, D. J., & Bellone, K. (2010). A Comparison of Function-Based Differential Reinforcement Interventions for Children Engaging in Disruptive Classroom Behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 19(3), 185–204. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41824486
Lowe C.F, (1979). Determinants of human operant behavior. Advances in Analysis of Behaviour. 1979;1:159-192