Introduction
Animal health care through veterinary medicine is essential in maintaining the well-being of animal populations. Veterinarians must understand different diseases that affect different species by exploring their mechanism of infection, clinical signs, diagnostic tests, treatment options, and preventive measures. Animal diseases are diverse in their various aspects that inform different management and response specifics. The diseases also differ in contagiousness, zoonotic potential, and availability of vaccines (Nelson & Couto, 2019). The research paper aims to enhance diagnostic skills, treatment options, and preventive measures by analyzing the complexity of some diseases found in specific canine, feline, equine, exotic, and ruminant species. While some diseases are species-specific, others affect different species depending on the nature of a causative agent and the susceptibility of the animal to the infection. The research paper will analyze diseases from different classifications, such as parasitic, infectious, toxic, and neoplastic diseases, to provide a wider range of information and contribute to the improvement of animal healthcare.
Parvovirus
The Parvovirus disease is caused by canine parvovirus, which is of the family Parvoviridae and has two variations, namely CPV-2a and CPV-2b. The disease mainly affects the canine species, especially domesticated dogs, but is also infectious to wolves, coyotes, and foxes. The disease suppresses the immune system in dogs by attacking rapidly dividing cells, especially in the bone marrow and the gastrointestinal tract, which causes inflammation in the intestines (Vail et al., 2019). Most parvovirus symptoms are due to the disease’s attack on the intestinal walls, which results in severe enteritis. These symptoms include vomiting, bloody Diarrhea, fever, dehydration, and probable septic shock and death in severe cases.
The two diagnostic tests necessary in finalizing a parvovirus disease diagnosis are Fecal Elisa, a clinical test to detect viral antigens in feces, and PCR tests for viral DNA detection. If a dog is diagnosed with parvovirus disease, the best treatment plan is based on the severity of the infection, health status, age, and projected impact of the treatment (Nelson & Couto, 2019). The main form of treatment is treating secondary infections and improving dehydration and electrolyte imbalances with intravenous fluids, nutritional support, and antibiotics. Parvovirus disease can be prevented through a combination vaccine of DHPP and DAPP. The combination vaccine also protects against diseases such as parainfluenza and adenovirus. This vaccine should be administered preferably at six to eight weeks of age, with preceding boosters every three to four weeks until they are 16 (Nelson & Couto, 2019). Complications from the vaccination might be caused by improper storage, improper administration, or individual immune system interference. The preventive measures of isolating the infected, maintaining hygiene, and vaccination are the best initiatives to prevent contagious spread in the hospital or herd.
Feline Leukemia Virus
The Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) affects the feline species of both domesticated and wild cats. This virus belongs to the Retroviridae family. The disease spreads mainly during contact and fighting and commonly causes preceding diseases such as lymphoma, leukemia, and immunodeficiency syndromes (Nelson & Couto, 2019). The perseverance of the virus in the bloodstream affects the cats through anemia, suppression of the immune system, development of leukemia, and other secondary infections. The common symptoms of FeLV include weakness, weight loss, fever, appetite loss, enlarged lymph nodes, jaundice, and many others, depending on the stage of infection. The diagnostic tests for FeLV diagnosis are PCR which detects FeLV DNA in blood, CBC which asses for leukopenia, anemia, or other abnormalities, and ELISA test, which detects the diseases antigens in blood or saliva (Vail et al., 2019).
Since FeLV has no cure, the treatment plan is supportive care and management of secondary infections with antibiotics, blood transfusions, and nutritional support. The lifespan after diagnosis varies based on a specific cat’s response to treatment, stage of infection, and concurrent diseases. Cats can be protected from FeLV disease through vaccination, available in the kitten’s vaccination series (Bassert, 2021). The vaccination induces immunity through a modified killed or alive virus, which means there are probable complications of failure to induce immunity. The best way to contain the spread of the disease is by isolating infected cats, regular testing, and hygiene for shared bowls or grooming tools.
Babesia canis
The Babesia Canis infects and destroys the red blood cells, especially in canine species such as outdoor dogs in tick-preventure areas. Although the Babesia species can infect other animals, the Babesia Canis only affects dogs. The symptoms of the disease include fever, Anemia, Loss of appetite, Jaundice, and, in severe cases, organ damage and neurological signs such as seizures and ataxia (Bassert, 2021). The diagnosis for Babesia Canis is either a blood smear exam to detect parasites in the red blood cells or a PCR test to look for Babesia DNA in the blood (Nelson & Couto, 2019). The treatment plan for the disease includes anti-protozoal medications, supportive care, and management of secondary complications such as anemia and organ dysfunction.
Severe cases that might occur depending on the start of treatment and stage of infection might require hospitalization and blood transfusions. The basic preventive measure for the disease is minimizing exposure to the parasite and infected ticks, which includes regular inspection and tick preventive measures such as spraying (Battaglia & Steele, 2020). Although there are efforts to develop vaccines in heavily infested areas, the disease has no recognized vaccine. Although Babesia Canis has no zoonotic potential, safety measures are necessary to prevent exposure. The spread of the disease can be prevented by isolating infected dogs, controlling ticks, screening for infection before transfusions, and veterinary check-ups.
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciola hepatica is a disease that mainly affects ruminant species, including cattle, sheep, and goats. Once the Fasciola hepatica finishes larvae development in its life cycle, it infects an intermediate host, mostly snails, while it completes the transformation to be ingested by the definitive host (Battaglia & Steele, 2020). The disease can affect other species, such as equine ex, ample horses, and can, in severe cases, cause liver failure and death. The signs and symptoms of the disease include weight loss, abdominal pain, anemia, jaundice, Diarrhea, and secondary infections. The diagnostic test for Fasciola hepatica includes a fecal exam to detect Fasciola eggs, a Serological test to detect antibodies against Fasciola antigens in blood, and Imaging studies such as radiography to detect gallbladder abnormalities and signs of fluke migration.
Although the prognosis for the disease depends on infection severity and liver damage, early treatment by administering triclabendazole medication leads to better clinical resolution (Nelson & Couto, 2019). Since there is no vaccine for Fasciola hepatica, prevention and control of the disease’s spread depends on environmental management to reduce exposure to contaminated pastures. The disease has zoonotic potential with human infection, mainly through ingesting water or vegetation contaminated with the parasite. The best preventive measure for humans is safety initiatives to avoid contact with contaminated water and vegetation. Fasciola hepatica is not contagious between animals, meaning that all the preventive measures to avoid infection also prevent the spread of the disease.
Equine recurrent uveitis
Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is a recurrent inflammatory condition of the uveal tract in the eye that is caused by a combination of genetic susceptibility, environmental factors, and autoimmune response prompted by infectious agents such as Leptospira spp (Bassert, 2021). Although ERU mainly affects horses, it affects other Equines such as mules and donkeys. The inflammation in the eye has severe effects on the equines, causing clinical symptoms of conjunctival hyperemia, ocular hypertension, corneal edema, light sensitivity, cataracts, iris change, and glaucoma (Vail et al., 2019). In severe cases, the disease leads to visual impairment and secondary infections such as corneal ulcers. ERU diagnostic tests are ophthalmic exam, which looks for clinical signs of inflammation; ocular ultrasonography, which assesses intraocular structures; or Serological testing for Leptospira antibodies (Bassert, 2021).
The treatment for ERU seeks to manage pain and preserve vision by controlling inflammation through anti-inflammatory medications, surgical intervention, and intraocular injections. The preventive measures of ERU include minimizing exposure to potential environmental triggers and infectious agents such as Leptospira spp (Battaglia & Steele, 2020). Although the disease has no current vaccine, vaccination against Leptospira spp is used in areas where Leptospirosis is prevalent due to its association with the disease. ERU has no zoonotic potential. However, safety measures are necessary due to rare cases of infection influenced by triggers leading to renal failure and uveitis. Preventive measures minimizing exposure to triggers contain the spread of the disease since it is not contagious between equines.
Progressive Retinal Atrophy
Progressive Retinal Atrophy (PRA) is a genetic disorder caused by the mutation of genes concerned with the development and function of the retina. The progressive mutation in retina cells results in blindness, which first presents as night blindness or visual impairment in low-light conditions, especially in feline species such as cats (Bassert, 2021). The infection’s visual impairment affects cats through decreased confidence, causing reduced movement and change of behavior. The PRU also affects the canine species and feline species in some rare cases. The symptoms of the disease are night blindness, decreased daylight vision, dilated pupils, and behavioral change due to visual impairment (Nelson & Couto, 2019).
The diagnostic tests for PRU include an ophthalmic exam to detect changes in the retina, electroretinography to assess the function of the retina, and genetic testing to identify specific mutations. Since there is no cure for PRU in felines, the treatment plan is supportive care and adaptation to blindness by providing a safe and familiar environment. The prognosis of the disease depends on disease severity and the cat’s adaptation to blindness. Since PRU is a genetic disorder, there is no current vaccination (Vail et al., 2019). Breeding practices such as genetic testing that reduce the prevalence of the disease in cat populations are essential PRU preventive measures. Only standard infection control measures are necessary for the disease since PRU is neither zoonotic nor contagious due to its genetic nature.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a neoplastic disease caused by too much exposure to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight. SCC, which mainly affects equine species, is caused by radiation damaging skill cells’ DNA, resulting in mutations that might influence the uncontrolled growth of squamous cells. SCC in equine, such as horses, affects lightly pigmented skin, such as eyelids, mucous membranes, and the oral cavity, causing inflammation and bleeding tumor sites (Combalia & Carrera, 2020). Despite SCC being common in feline species, it can affect canines in sparsely-haired regions.
The symptoms of SCC include inflammation, redness at the tumor site, bleeding at tumor sites, pain, ulceration, and difficulty of eating, breathing, or swallowing (Combalia & Carrera, 2020). The disease can be diagnosed through physical examinations, biopsy, ultrasound, and radiography. Due to the presence of tumors, the treatment for SCC includes surgical excision, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. The prognosis depends on the response to treatment and the extent of the tumor. SCC can be prevented by minimizing the equine’s exposure to the sun by providing shelter and UV protection measures (Combalia & Carrera, 2020). SCC is a neoplastic disease, meaning it has neither zoonotic nor contagious potential. Sanitation and protection measures are the only necessary initiatives to minimize infection in the herd.
Bovine ketosis
Bovine Ketosis is a metabolic disorder caused by lower glucose levels than the needed energy demands of ruminant species such as cows. The imbalance between glucose levels and ruminant energy demands causes an increase in the production of ketone bodies, especially the BHBA, which results in clinical ketosis symptoms (Tighe & Brown, 2019). The effect on cows happens during the transition from late pregnancy to lactation due to the increased metabolism requiring increased energy levels. Although bovine ketosis mostly affects cattle, the metabolic disorder can affect other ruminant species, such as goats and sheep, when the negative energy balance occurs. The symptoms of bovine ketosis are decreased milk production, weight loss, weakness, anorexia, ketotic breath odor, and neurologic signs (Creedon & Davis, 2023).
The diagnosis of the disease depends on the detection of ketone bodies in urine or blood samples using a ketone meter or laboratory analysis. Since bovine ketosis is caused by an energy imbalance, the treatment plan is correcting negative energy balance through supplemental feeding and intravenous administration of glucose-sufficient supplements. Although severe cases might require intensive care, the bovine ketosis prognosis is favorable with sufficient treatment. Bovine Ketosis disease cannot affect humans and is not contagious (Creedon & Davis, 2023). The prevention of the disease is proper nutrition management for cattle and ruminants in late pregnancy to ensure adequate energy balance.
Ethylene glycol toxicity
Ethylene glycol toxicity occurs after animals ingest products containing ethylene glycol, which metabolizes in the liver into glycolic and oxalic acids that damage the kidneys, among other organs (Creedon & Davis, 2023). Ethylene glycol toxicity affects all species depending on the ingestion of ethylene glycol products such as solvents and antifreeze. The disease causes clinical signs of depression, weakness, ataxia, seizures, tremors, and coma. Exotic species such as avian birds, which are affected by ethylene glycol toxicity, also have signs of vomiting and Diarrhea and can persist to decreased urine production and kidney failure. Other species, especially canines and felines, are affected by the disease based on exposure to the ethylene glycol toxic.
The disease can be diagnosed through blood tests to detect electrolyte imbalances and elevated kidney parameters (Creedon & Davis, 2023). Clinical assessment and laboratory tests such as a urinalysis to detect calcium oxalate crystals are essential in confirmation of the diagnosis. The prognosis of Ethylene glycol toxicity depends on early detection, and its treatment for exotic species is supportive care, hydration, and electrolyte balance through antidotes of ethanol (Creedon & Davis, 2023). Since ethylene glycol toxicity has no zoonotic potential, the only essential initiatives are precautionary measures to ensure products with toxins are kept safely. The disease has no vaccine and is not contagious, but it is prevented through measures that limit exposure to toxic edibles and water.
Osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease caused by a range of factors, which include aging, genetic predisposition, trauma, or specific species characteristics. In exotic species, osteoarthritis mainly affects birds, reptiles, and pocket pets by causing progressive degeneration of joint cartilage, leading to abnormal joint conformation (Tighe & Brown, 2019). The disease affects avians by causing pain, stiffness, and reduced movement. Although osteoarthritis also affects canines and equines, the prevalence and symptoms depend on specific species. Some common osteoarthritis symptoms include joint stiffness, lameness, swelling in the joints, behavioral changes such as reduced movement, and difficulty performing activities (Tighe & Brown, 2019).
In exotics, osteoarthritis can be diagnosed by combining physical examination, radiography, and imaging tests such as CT. The treatment plan for the disease in exotic species is improving joint function, slowing the disease, and relieving pain through anti-inflammatory drugs, physical therapy, and supplements for weight management. The prognosis of osteoarthritis disease is influenced by the response to treatment and the severity of the disease during diagnosis (Tighe & Brown, 2019). There is no vaccination for osteoarthritis disease, which is also non-contagious and cannot affect humans. The best way to prevent the disease and control infection is by nutritional management of body weight and environmental safety to reduce trauma or injury.
Conclusion
The research paper examines different diseases affecting different species by analyzing their manifestation and effect on specific species. The small and large animal diseases covered in the research include Parvovirus, Feline Leukemia Virus, Babesia Canis, Osteoarthritis, and Bovine Ketosis. The diseases analyzed provide better knowledge and awareness, which is necessary to improve disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Despite the major contributions, the research also shows the need for more research due to the undefined specifics of different diseases and their effects on specific species. Animal safety and protection measures are necessary to reduce the probability of spread in any species’ herd (Creedon & Davis, 2023). Regular check-ups are also necessary to detect diseases that manifest mildly or diseases with ranging symptoms that might provide possible differential diagnoses.
References
Bassert, J. M. (2021). McCurnin’s Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses E-Book. In Google Books. Elsevier Health Sciences. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LrEhEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Medicine+(eBook)+/+Large+Animal+Medical+Nursing&ots=W_uq3Urhkd&sig=mFZRwfVM4Ax7bGl_FFKHoGskMOY
Battaglia, A. M., & Steele, A. M. (2020). Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care for Veterinary Technicians – E-Book: Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care for Veterinary Technicians – E-Book. In Google Books. Elsevier Health Sciences. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i6z0DwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Small+and+Large+Animal+Medicine+(eBook)+/+Health+and+Safety&ots=mBVeL3wf53&sig=7v5ZDytthoGPUDLdIOXAygFua_Y
Combalia, A., & Carrera, C. (2020). Squamous Cell Carcinoma: An Update on Diagnosis and Treatment. Dermatology Practical & Conceptual, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.5826/dpc.1003a66
Creedon, J. M. B., & Davis, H. (2023). Advanced Monitoring and Procedures for Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care. In Google Books. John Wiley & Sons. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=4deuEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA15&dq=Small+Animal+Medical+Nursing&ots=0GSVh04MJc&sig=UFjzzZkl6y4lQ7cVIcQvFCEaAHU
Nelson, R. W., & Couto, C. G. (2019). Small Animal Internal Medicine – E-Book: Small Animal Internal Medicine – E-Book. In Google Books. Elsevier Health Sciences. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kh6vDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Small+and+Large+Animal+Medicine+(eBook)+/+Health+and+Safety&ots=NKDOId7mkN&sig=Axux3k2bkjDCGqMnZHpU8wpJDJQ
Tighe, M. M., & Brown, M. (2019). Mosby’s Comprehensive Review for Veterinary Technicians E-Book. In Google Books. Elsevier Health Sciences. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=KjaPDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=large+animal+medicine+veterinary+technicians&ots=5l_CwKJHIM&sig=Csp_SgTNhzrUvVhR5mHsENchdnY
Vail, D. M., Thamm, D. H., & Liptak, J. M. (2019). Withrow and MacEwen’s Small Animal Clinical Oncology – E-Book. In Google Books. Elsevier Health Sciences. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=JX2kDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Small+and+Large+Animal+Medicine+(eBook)+/+Necropsy+and+Veterinary+Oncology&ots=3Mvn2qnHe_&sig=CbKbYmQXyqZtb2AYY5P-ljoUuw8
write