Introduction
This chapter provides a literature review on factors affecting teacher job satisfaction and retention. The issue of teacher retention is a global challenge faced by educational systems in various countries. According to Pgkmc & Smbl (2020), teacher retention rates vary worldwide, with developing countries experiencing lower rates ranging from 5-30%. As a developing country, Sri Lanka encounters this problem in its districts, including Galle (Pgkmc & Smbl, 2020). The quality of education in these areas is directly linked to teacher retention (Fouché et al., 2017). Significantly, this problem is primarily attributed to workplace satisfaction (Mugo & Guyo, 2018).
Numerous studies have shown that employee satisfaction is closely linked to employee retention. Satisfied employees tend to have lower turnover and absenteeism rates, while the opposite is true for dissatisfied employees (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014; Ćulibrk et al., 2018; Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017; Guyo, 2018).
In every organization, human resources play a crucial role in productivity and are not easily replaceable. While other tangible assets like machines can be substituted, replacing human resources is challenging. Therefore, their workplace satisfaction is paramount, as they play a critical role in decision-making that steers organizations toward success (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). The same principle applies to teachers and their vital role in education. As critical decision-makers, teachers significantly contribute to educational success by achieving educational objectives and goals. Improving students’ performance in public schools hinges on the satisfaction and presence of teachers, making this a significant topic worth investigating (Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017).
Teacher retention is heavily contingent on job satisfaction. If educational systems and institutions fail to address this, teachers will seek new opportunities in other districts or consider changing their careers altogether. Therefore, the theme of teacher satisfaction and its impact on teacher retention in Galle’s educational zone serves as a compelling subject for this literature review, as it aims to uncover how it influences teacher turnover rates.
The Definitions of Job Satisfaction and Retention
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an individual’s positive feelings and perceptions towards their responsibilities and work environment(Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017). (Ćulibrk et al., 2018) agree with this term as they indicate that it is a positive emotional state in which employees feel happy about their work and tasks. The two definitions show that it is influenced by how the mind perceives the situation and the conditions present in the environment. Additionally,(Senyucel, 2009) describes it as one that is influenced by the needs of an individual, and since individuals have different needs, job satisfaction is subjective. This implies that it is a personal experience that is influenced by what an individual values and needs, and since individuals are unique, job satisfaction among people in an organization is quite varied.
From the above definitions and concepts, job satisfaction is how much an individual enjoys what they do and their working environment and if the outcomes satisfy the employee’s needs. It is a key motivator that drives people to work hard and achieve their goals, as they are highly likely to be engaged and motivated to do their best.
In short, it is determined by several factors, including the work environment, the nature of work, and an individual’s needs and values. Therefore, employers ought to consider these factors for employee satisfaction.
Retention
Retention refers to an organization putting measures that make employees satisfied with their workplace, reducing their chances of moving to other jobs(Shibiti, 2020). It can also be called keeping the organization’s employees as long as possible until it achieves its objectives and targets(Khalid & Nawab, 2018). From the two definitions, retention aims at maintaining the organization’s employees so that they can find substantial reasons to move to other jobs without them helping the organization achieve the expected results. It is associated with an organization’s success and performance(Khalid & Nawab, 2018; Shibiti, 2020). The reason is that keeping employees longer saves the company time and resources associated with hiring and training new employees. Furthermore, the time the newly recruited workers take to catch up with the current projects may be massive, thus delaying an organization’s projects. Hence, there is a need for the management to formulate policies and practices that can maintain their talents.
On the other hand, retention factors can attract and motivate employees to stay longer in the organization(Khalid & Nawab, 2018). They are believed to improve the employees’ abilities to stay in work and improve their performance. The management should consider these factors as part of the management’s retention strategies. They include employee salary benefits, support from managers and supervisors, career opportunities, the ability to balance work and personal life commitments, the nature of work, and opportunities for learning new skills and growing in one’s career, as shown in Table 1 (Shibiti, 2020).
Connecting these retention factors with job satisfaction, they are related. As previously stated, job satisfaction is a positive emotional state determined by several factors, including the work environment, the nature of work, and an individual’s own needs and values(Ćulibrk et al., 2018; Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017; Senyucel, 2009). All these factors are part of the abovementioned retention factors, intertwining job satisfaction with an employee retention rate. Therefore, when employees concentrate on employee satisfaction, they can deal with employee retention at the same time.
Table 1. Retention Factors that enhance the retention of employees in organizations (Shibiti, 2020).
Theories Explaining the Impact of Employee Job Satisfaction on their Retention
Theories are frameworks that assist people in understanding their world experiences (Stoner et al., 2003).The frameworks below attempt to create models to comprehend factors contributing to satisfaction and how this affects their workplace stay. Please actualize these theories to ensure that employees’ workplace retention rate is maintained.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow proposed a five-level hierarchy of human needs in his 1943 work “A Theory of Human Motivation.” According to this concept, behavior has numerous purposes, and human acts are intended to accomplish multiple goals simultaneously (Genkova, 2021). The hierarchy has one top-level growth requirement and four lower-order physiological demands. For people to achieve the maximum degree of self-actualization, their lower-level wants must be met first. The bottom four categories are called deficiency needs because people are motivated to complete them when they are unmet. Physiological demands include necessities for life, such as food, water, and air. Security and health are vital concerns in times of emergency. After these are satisfied, esteem requirements like acceptance and self-worth come next, and belongingness needs like love and connections. The ultimate degree, self-actualization, is characterized by actions motivated by an inward desire to improve. According to Maslow (1998), professionally successful people always strive for tremendous success, establishing new objectives and becoming more motivated after each victory.
It is clear from applying Maslow’s hierarchy that there are differences in the reasons for teachers’ desire to remain in their roles. However, before teachers can work towards self-fulfillment, Maslow states that their psychological and fundamental needs must be satisfied (Taormina & Gao, 2013). The need at a lower level may be a factor in teacher turnover. When a teacher’s psychological and fundamental needs, like a secure atmosphere, a say in decisions, and supportive administration, are met, they are more likely to stay in the school or profession. They can reach their full potential only when these lower-level requirements are met (Marston, 2014).
Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need.
2. Herzberg’s two-factor Theory.
Also known as the motivation-hygiene Theory, this Theory explains job satisfaction and motivation. It categorizes factors into motivators and hygiene factors, which influence job satisfaction. Motivator factors lead to job satisfaction and are essential in promoting it. They encompass growth and development opportunities, challenging tasks, and recognition. In contrast, hygiene factors do not directly result in job satisfaction, but their absence can lead to job dissatisfaction. These include job security, salary, and working conditions (Koncar et al., 2021).
As previously mentioned, job satisfaction pertains to a situation where an individual experiences positive emotions in their workplace environment. It is determined by various factors, including the work environment, the nature of work, and an individual’s needs and values (Ćulibrk et al., 2018; Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017; Senyucel, 2009). Motivators and hygiene factors directly and indirectly impact teachers’ workplace satisfaction and engagement. Teachers will experience higher morale, increased productivity, and reduced turnover rates in such a conducive working atmosphere.
3. Job Characteristics Model.
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM), developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham in 1976, aims to identify the key elements that contribute to work satisfaction, engagement, and motivation (Fahad, 2014). This framework has been widely employed in job analysis and job design research. According to the Theory, there are five core components: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. These elements collectively determine an employee’s job satisfaction, engagement, and productivity. When these characteristics are combined, they have a high potential to yield these positive outcomes (Ali et al., 2014).
Therefore, organizations utilize these components to create more meaningful and fulfilling job roles for their employees. In the case of public school teachers, incorporating these five characteristics into their roles enables them to learn and develop, exert more control over their work environments, and engage in meaningful tasks. This, in turn, leads to greater job satisfaction. In such a scenario, teachers become more engaged and productive, making it less likely that they will seek alternative opportunities elsewhere.
4. Expectancy Theory.
Also known as Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, it posits that individuals are motivated to undertake specific actions when they anticipate favorable outcomes. This Theory consists of three key components: expectancy, valence, and instrumentality. When all these elements are high, individuals are more inclined to be motivated to engage in a particular action (Mathibe, 2008). This framework is closely linked to job satisfaction, as employees motivated to perform their duties are more likely to achieve their goals and receive rewards, ultimately leading to job satisfaction (Osafo et al., 2021). These employees are less likely to have significant reasons for leaving their positions in such cases.
The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Teacher Retention in Galle’s District Public Schools
Job satisfaction is an individual’s positive attitude towards work, tasks, and work environment. When negative emotions are displayed towards work and the working environment, it signifies job dissatisfaction (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). Research on job satisfaction explores factors related to workplace contentment and how it influences job commitment and turnover decisions. It suggests that dissatisfied teachers are likelier to change schools (Mugo & Guyo, 2018). Studies in organizational behavior and management support the idea that job satisfaction is crucial in predicting employees’ commitment to their jobs and the likelihood of leaving (Mugo & Guyo, 2018). Teacher satisfaction is directly related to work engagement, as content workers are less likely to be absent from work, which can prevent complaints or suspensions and, consequently, job dissatisfaction (Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017). This kind of work engagement and commitment makes teachers consider their profession an investment, reducing the likelihood of them quitting their jobs.
Another aspect of job satisfaction is an improved school climate, influenced by positive morale and emotions in the workplace. Positive feelings among teachers create a positive and attractive learning and working environment for teachers and students. This improved environment positively impacts student and teacher performance, leading to achieving goals and objectives (Kanojan & Sivalogathasan, 2017). Furthermore, in such conditions, school administrators can reward and acknowledge teachers’ efforts, motivating them to stay in their jobs and promoting staff retention. Rewards can be in the form of salaries, promotions, bonuses, and other incentives, all of which enhance employee performance and group productivity (Trevor, 2001). Compensation is also closely tied to recruiting and retaining employees, influencing their decisions on job offers and retention (Armstrong & Taylor, 1977/2014). A significant study on the impact of salary on teacher mobility in various districts in Texas indicated that a salary increase reduced teacher turnover, although other factors like student quality and school environment significantly influenced turnover (Hanushek et al., 2004).
Working conditions, part of employee satisfaction, play a critical role in teacher turnover. When teachers contemplate leaving one job for another, they assess their current job and the alternative in terms of working conditions. Research suggests poor working conditions, including low pay, insufficient administrative support, and student discipline issues, can lead to high teacher turnover (Baker & Smith, 1997; Ingersoll, 2001; Nzuve, 2007). Leadership and administrative support are critical components in teacher job satisfaction. Teachers are more likely to be satisfied when they receive support from their leaders and administrators, which includes fair workload distribution, clear vision and objectives, rewards and recognition, and a supportive workplace culture (Mugo & Guyo, 2018). Additionally, students’ behavior affects teacher job satisfaction as it influences teachers’ sense of safety and respect, ultimately impacting their ability to continue teaching (Mugo & Guyo, 2018).
This comparison leads teachers to seek employment in schools with better economic and educational advantages, disadvantaging public schools in Sri Lanka’s Galle district due to their limited resources and the need for higher wages, driving teachers to look for better-paying jobs in urban areas (Hanushek et al., 2004). Moreover, Sri Lanka’s practice of initially assigning teachers to remote areas for up to five years may significantly affect early teacher morale, leading to high turnover. Research shows teachers are highly dissatisfied during this period due to poor facilities (Pgkmc & Smbl, 2020). Factors like low wages, geographic isolation, and small school size in these remote areas make recruiting and retaining teachers challenging (Beesley et al., 2019).
Tilak Raj and Lalita (2013) research evaluated school teachers’ present work satisfaction levels. A sample of one hundred instructors was used in their study; fifty came from the public and fifty from the private sector. They looked at factors including employment stability, flexibility in working circumstances, pay, and level of freedom in their work. The survey results showed no appreciable disparities in work satisfaction between teachers in the public and private sectors, nor between male and female instructors.
Zembylas and Papanastasiou (2004) conducted comparable research in Cyprus and concentrated on teachers’ motivation and work satisfaction. According to their research, there were differences between Cypriot teachers and teachers in other nations about job choice considerations. The main factors that drove teachers in Cyprus were pay, hours worked, job stability, and benefits related to the field. The survey emphasized how important higher pay and better working conditions are to raising teacher job satisfaction.
Strydom et al. (2012) investigated South African school teachers’ work satisfaction in a different research. They looked at factors like years of service (0–10 years and more than ten years), gender (male and female), and color (black and white). According to their findings, instructors generally expressed modest work satisfaction. Additionally, the study found that different racial groups had different work satisfaction ratings, but it did not identify any significant disparities across genders.
The current literature review has made a valuable contribution by emphasizing the significance of teacher job satisfaction and its influence on retention in public schools within Sri Lanka’s Galle educational zone. However, it is important to recognize certain limitations in this work. The study’s reliance on quantitative data and statistical analysis has limited the depth of its insights and may have led to the generalizability of findings. This limitation stems from the existing literature offering more detailed information for other districts, making the statistics less specific to the Galle educational zone. Consequently, future research endeavors should address the unique issues within the Galle educational zone by employing qualitative research methods, thus filling this research gap and providing more nuanced insights.
Conclusion
The issue of teacher retention is a global concern impacting schools in Sri Lanka and worldwide. The problem of retaining teachers is closely linked to workplace satisfaction. The literature review defines the concepts of job satisfaction and retention. Job satisfaction encompasses an individual’s positive feelings and perceptions toward their work and work environment, influenced by various factors, including personal needs and values. Conversely, retention refers to the strategies and mechanisms employed to maintain employee satisfaction and reduce their likelihood of leaving an organization before achieving its goals and objectives.
The literature review introduces several theories on employee job satisfaction and retention, including Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, the Job Characteristics Model, and the Expectancy Theory. These theories help explain how factors such as the work environment, growth opportunities, and motivation contribute to job satisfaction, subsequently affecting employee retention.
Furthermore, the literature review highlights the significance of job satisfaction concerning commitment, a positive school climate, and working conditions, which all impact teacher retention in Sri Lanka’s Galle educational zone. Commitment and engagement within the public schools foster a positive working environment, leading to enhanced student and teacher performance. Improved performance enables teachers to be recognized and rewarded, significantly influencing their retention and job acceptance within these institutions.
On the contrary, poor working conditions, characterized by low wages and inadequate support, can result in high teacher turnover as educators seek better opportunities, offering higher salaries and more support. Additionally, initially assigning teachers to remote areas in Sri Lanka can be demoralizing due to low wages and challenging working conditions. The government can address this issue by allocating more resources to these schools and increasing teacher salaries.
Furthermore, school management should prioritize professional development to enhance teachers’ professionalism and commitment (Guskey, 2003). Professional training equips teachers with the necessary skills to efficiently fulfill their roles and responsibilities in the ever-evolving education sector. In summary, the literature addressing job satisfaction in Sri Lanka’s public schools in the Galle educational zone plays a crucial role in retaining teachers in this region.
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