Literature Review
This chapter has two sections: 1) a literature review on the perspective of African American single mothers in Birmingham and Alabama areas and 2) the societal stereotypes and criminalization of African male adolescents. The first section focuses on research concerning both positive and negative societal perceptions of single mothers in Birmingham and Alabama areas and the self-perceptions of single mothers in Birmingham and Alabama areas. Before exploring the available literature on positive perceptions of single mothers, this chapter will briefly review the literature about the overall societal overview of single mothers across the globe to illustrate how this is a global issue. The second section of the literature review will focus on the societal stereotypes and criminalization of African Adolescents
Overall societal perception of single mothers across the globe
There is an emerging worldwide pattern where there is an increase in the percentage of children being brought by a single mother. According to Cross & Zhang (2022), around 15% of families with dependent children in the European Union are headed by a single parent. A significant proportion of instances pertaining to this phenomenon affect women. The number of children residing with a single mother in the United States surpassed 15.76 million in the year 2019 (Cross & Zhang, 2022). According to previous studies, familial dynamics have an impact on the development of stereotypes. Therefore, a single mother encounters discrimination across different domains due to the persistence of unfavorable societal perceptions regarding them. Research done by Dogan et al., (2022) found out that there is an increase in institutionalized bias which can be observed in the permanent ban on assisted reproductive technologies (ART) for unmarried and single mothers. In addition, only fifty percent of the European nations permit single mothers to utilize ART at this time.
There is lack of sufficient evidence regarding discrimination against single-mother households in various scenarios draws attention to the employment participation of single mothers and the possible instances of workplace discrimination they may face. Research done by EE et al., (2017) have examined prejudice and discrimination directed at this specific group. Both investigations, nevertheless, concentrate predominantly on the rental housing industry. The findings of this study, which employed an online correspondence experiment, indicate that heterosexual couples receive significantly more positive responses than single mothers. Economic marginalization, as opposed to other types of prejudice, appears to be the primary source of discrimination experienced by single parents, according to both studies (EE et al., 2017).
Aspects of concern include the school’s stance on unmarried mothers, the prevalent prejudices associated with children raised in such households, and the possibility of reduced academic performance. According to a critical literature review by Hughes (2018), indicate that children from single-mother households perform worse on standardized tests and have lower cognitive functioning than those from two-parent families. In addition, their grade point averages are typically lesser, and they complete fewer years of formal education. Nevertheless, an alternative plausible situation within these academic surroundings corresponds with the contradictory results of research concerning attitudes toward single mother. It implies that this specific cohort of parents might, in fact, be entitled to preferential treatment. This family structure might be perceived by schools as being more susceptible to various forms of vulnerability.
Becoming a single mother may be as a result of a variety of life events, including divorce, termination of a common-law partnership, bereavement, or the conscious decision to parent alone. Research done by Hughes (2018) indicates that perceptions of single mothers differ depending on the circumstances surrounding their single status. In general, divorced parents are perceived more positively than unmarried single mothers. In their study, (EE et al., 2017) examines the depiction of single-parent families and he provided persuasive evidence to substantiate this assertion. The present study examines the societal perceptions and attitudes towards single mothers who are rearing children. The researcher discovered that depictions of single-motherhood households resulting from divorce were relatively less negative in the 20th century, in contrast to representations of single-motherhood households headed by unmarried individual. Periodicals and magazine articles focusing on single-parent households where the parents were never married demonstrated an equivalent inclination for doubt by the end of the 20th century compared to the beginning. These inclinations, according to the author, reflect the actual and theoretical perspectives of Americans regarding single-parent households.
Research done by Jones & Luo (1999) concluded that Muslim and Christian members of the religious community viewed single mothers as generally unacceptable. On the contrary, a minority of respondents exhibited apathy towards it, while a minority even regarded it as favorable or exceptionally favorable. The notion of single motherhood was frequently labeled as “extremely unfavorable” or “unfavorable,” and was therefore considered atypical. Therefore, the phenomenon is a prevalent negative aspect of society in various regions across the globe.
There exists a predominant perception that the upbringing of children by a single mother affects society as a whole, in addition to the children. It is worth mentioning that both positive and negative outcomes have been reported by individuals as a result of these effects. Constantly cited advantages of single motherhood include the appreciation for the single-parent mother and the ease of making economic and financial decisions (Kim & Kim, 2020). On the contrary, there exists a belief that children who are raised in single-mother households accelerate the development of independence and resilience, foster deeper emotional connections with their parents, and demonstrate superior communication abilities in comparison to their counterparts from intact families (Dogan et al., 2022). Another research concluded contrary to these findings. (Lu et al., 2019) acknowledged that the role of a single mother entailed a multitude of detrimental effects. The aforementioned consequences encompassed financial hardships, absence of social connections, uncertainty regarding parental responsibilities, feelings of vulnerability, and adverse effects on the child’s cognitive and emotional growth, behavioral tendencies, and scholastic performance. In the absence of a paternal role model, inadequate infant supervision has been linked to negative consequences (Hughes, 2018).
While it is widely accepted that single mother’s ought to be provided with aid in various aspects including housing, food, transportation, employment opportunities, and free education for their children, in determining their eligibility for such support, it is crucial to consider the rationale behind their unique circumstances. The prevailing perception is that widows have died of natural causes, while single mothers, whether by choice or by having a child outside of wedlock, are more likely to face prejudice and a scarcity of support. An analogous opinion was established between this result and what Kim & Kim (2020) termed a “hierarchy of single mothers” in her article concerning single parenthood. Numerous authors have noted that individuals who have lost a spouse are met with greater public sympathy. Moreover, unexpected situations, such as the termination of marriage, place-specific single mothers in this difficult position
Among single parenthood, gender disparity has been indicated to favor single fathers. (Persaud et al., 1999) states that while society adores single fathers similar to martyrs, single mothers, who bear the financial burden of supporting their families, are stigmatized. A social hierarchy exists among single mothers, predicated on respectability, in which specific individuals receive commendation while others are regarded with pity. The formation of this hierarchy is frequently impacted by socioeconomic status and race (Lu et al., 2019). This social structure is determined by factors including socioeconomic status, ethnic background, and, most significantly, the circumstances that lead to single motherhood. As indicated by the gradient rating, individuals who have been previously married, widowed, or divorced are frequently accorded recognition and approbation within patriarchal societies. This circumstance is beneficial for single fathers.
Universally, both men and women must work toward attaining equality. Diverse forms of injustice and stigmatization are instilled to marginalized communities, including single mothers with low incomes. The greatest obstacle single mothers encounter in carrying out their societal responsibilities is social stigma and negative attitudes. According to Jones & Luo (1999), mothers who are unmarried, bereaved, or divorced are often judged negatively in comparison to their married counterparts, who are occasionally erroneously stigmatized as deviating from the norm. Furthermore, it is widely accepted that households headed by single mothers are at a greater vulnerability to experiencing dysfunction. As a result of the gendered societal norms and pressures placed upon mothers, unmarried mothers may encounter more significant psychological and social obstacles than their married counterparts.
Single mothers encounter a more pronounced socioeconomic disadvantage in comparison to their married counterparts. According to research done by (Persaud et al., 1999), Individuals in this demographic demonstrate an increased vulnerability to low self-esteem, unemployment, poverty, and a dearth of domestic resources. Additionally, their salaries are typically lesser, and they favor renting over property ownership. Single mothers are affected by economic insecurity as a result of their limited capabilities to earn a living, minimal chances to receive child support, and inadequate or no societal assistance. Furthermore, it is commonly perceived that single mothers utilize a strict and authoritative approach to parenthood. As a result of these views, they create a stereotyping environment around single mothers, which in turn disseminates the idea that single mothers and married mothers are different in nature.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the quality of life involves an individual evaluation of their place in the universe with regard to their personal values and priorities. When compared to married mothers, single mothers reported lower levels of overall life satisfaction and inferior health (Mohd, et al., 2011). On the contrary, research has shown that single mothers in countries with more equitable gender policies and family support programs have higher quality of life compared to single mothers in a country with less gender equity (Mohd, et al., 2011).
Single-parent households, especially those headed by single mothers, experience substantial repercussions in terms of various physical and mental health issues. (Lu et al., 2019) state that single mothers experience inferior emotional and physical health. Research on Korean households headed by a single parent comprised a woman and one or more children. It was found that single-mother households exhibited considerably diminished incomes in comparison to other single-parent households. Surprising single mothers with lower levels of education and income were more likely to report worse subjective health conditions and depressive symptoms, according to Jones & Luo, (1999). An inquiry unveiled that the health condition of single mothers was inferior to that of mothers who were married. A lack of social assistance and financial pressure accompanied this disparity. An additional investigation revealed that single mothers’ health was adversely impacted by variables including unemployment, poverty, and inadequate educational attainment (Mohd, et al., 2011). Their reports indicate that prejudice against single mothers is more prevalent.
The findings of Burt & Cohen, (2009)’s study examining how college students perceived single parents on the job indicated that single parents had a more difficult time adjusting to a new location than other types of employees. If the position required recommendations, single mothers were consequently more likely to receive recommendations for employment without the need to relocate. As a consequence, parental status-based prejudices potentially result in unequal treatment (Burt & Cohen, 1989). In addition, the participants believed that single mothers exhibited greater maturity. Working mothers were consequently granted a merit-based honorarium at a greater rate than never married single mothers, utilizing performance-based data that was identical.
Budgeon, (2015) argued that participants’ perceptions of single fathers are more situational and tied to their personal circumstances, whereas their attitudes toward single mothers are typically subjective and contingent on the individuality of the latter. The author suggested that societal approval of a single parent is conditional upon their gender, irrespective of the nature of that approval either positive or negative. Burt & Cohen, (1989)’s assertion that gender biases reinforce public perceptions of single parents is accurate.
Budgeon, (2015) also concluded that housing in rentals is more accommodating to two-parent heterosexual households compared to those with one parent. While it is true that owners may have a prejudice against single-mothers’ households, the most credible rationale is that the average landlord or landlady perceives single mothers as financially vulnerable and, consequently, is apprehensive that renting to them could jeopardize the collection of rent. As a result of lacking any background information on potential applicants, the service provider discriminates against all members of that category. Edgemon, (2018) reinforced these findings stating that economic factors significantly impacted educational institutions’ rejection of emails from single mothers, despite the fact that they ought to be given less weight in the realm of education compared to housing. Although state-dependent private schools are legally prohibited from charging tuition, in practice, the overwhelming majority of these establishments do so. Single-mothers’ households were statistically subjected to economic discrimination in state-funded public and private institutions (Budgeon, 2015).
State based prejudice is the discrimination directed at a particular demographic or minority in a society (Edgemon, 2018). Mohd, et al., (2011) argued that due to the stigma associated with these identities, schools were hesitant to engage with families that have undergone a divorce or consist of single mothers. Religious or other firmly held principles could potentially contribute to the development of such prejudice. Budgeon, (2015) echoed this finding and acknowledged that due to the high tendency for schools to be more traditional or religious, religious schools exhibited a prejudice against students whose parents are unmarried. Moreover, irrespective of their religious affiliations, individuals who have never been married or have personally suffered a tragic loss, such as a widow’s demise, may have a greater capacity to sympathize with the challenges of being a single parent. Consequently, viable alternatives to discrimination based on positive or negative taste exist within the educational environment.
Research done by Edgemon (2018) concluded that many single mothers of color in Birmingham struggled to establish financial stability due to the challenging barriers they face in their pursuit of income. There is a higher likelihood of poverty among minority mothers who raise their children alone, as opposed to white mothers who do the same or reside in two-parent households. In 2010, the poverty rates among African American single mothers (47.1%) were significantly higher than the national poverty rate of 15.1% (Edgemon, 2018). There exists a correlation between single mothers and inferior levels of educational achievement. (Hurst, 2022) found out that Twenty percent are African American, constituting the variety of women of color among unmarried mothers with no high school diploma.
Single mothers participate in the labor force at a high rate, and they are susceptible to a higher rate of unemployment. The challenges they face in obtaining full-time employment that offer higher salaries are primarily attributable to the financial obligations associated with child care and other forms of care. In addition, the majority of employed single mothers of color are service sector workers, where they frequently receive reduced pay and fewer benefits (Budgeon, 2015). It is exceedingly challenging for single mothers of color to provide for their families, as they experience disproportionately high rates of destitution and low median incomes compared to other demographic groups (Hurst, 2022).
Positive Societal perceptions of Single Mothers in Birmingham and Alabama Areas
The “good mother” stereotype, which dictates that a mother should prioritize the needs of her children and dedicate the majority of her time to them, continues to be the primary factor contributing to the restricted favorable public perceptions of single mothers, notwithstanding the findings of a few encouraging studies (Burt & Cohen, 1989). Moreover, the “myth of motherhood” established by Kerby, (2012) significantly influences the categorization of mothers as either exemplary (e.g., affectionate, considerate, patient) or awful (e.g., distant, unwelcoming, authoritarian). This aspect holds particular significance for single mothers, as they may encounter dual humiliation for deviating from conventional gender norms and for carrying out the conventional responsibilities associated with the “mother” title, such as household duties.
In Birmingham, Maier & McGeorge (2014) conducted a study in which school officials, including principals, teachers, and staff, praised single mothers who managed to flourish and provide for their children despite encountering difficult circumstances. Additionally, single mothers in Alabama were strategically utilizing their support networks and develop their own plans for success while balancing work and family obligations (Kerby, 2012). Additionally, societal perceptions of single mothers were not predicated exclusively on their parental status (Maier & McGeorge, 2014). This implies that single mothers who have never been married extended their recognition and appreciation for other sides of their lives, apart from being predicated on their single parent status.
In the limited body of literature concerning the advantages of single parenthood in Alabama, Patrick et al. (2016) examined 42 such households by applying five indicators frequently referenced in family literature as indicators of stable, two-parent households. Better health outcomes were found to be associated with positive parent-child communication and broader social support networks. Additionally, the author acknowledged that children who had single mothers reported having comparatively high levels of physical and mental well-being.
Furthermore, Patrick et al. (2016) examined the assets of Birmingham households headed by a single mother using a qualitative methodology. She found that these mothers possessed exceptional networking skills and recognized the importance of cultivating supportive relationships with other parents. The body of research examining society’s positive perception of single mothers consistently reinforces the notion that these women exhibit difficult networking capabilities. Immediate effects of the relationship between parents and children, such as intimacy and attachment between mother and child, were identified as defining characteristics of single mothers, whereas the literature indicates that family structure is of lesser importance (Li et al., 2010).
The research conducted by Hurst (2022) and Patrick et al. (2016) surveyed twenty voluntary single mothers from Alabama regarding their favorable familial encounters. Based on the mothers’ adherence to stringent domestic regulations and expectations, as well as their evaluation of the quality of their relationship with their children, the researcher may have erred in assuming that children of single mothers experience a greater number of negative interactions compared to those from intact families with two parents. Although Ross & Rapp (2011) did not discover any evidence of oppression against single-parent families, some of the participants did recognize the positive attributes that characterized this group. Nevertheless, the researchers refrained from disclosing the precise qualities that were identified by the participants. This discovery contributes to the favorable attitudes towards single mothers. Researchers further asserted that the challenges encountered by single-mother households are not intrinsically defective, but rather stem from societal norms that favor nuclear families.
Negative Societal Perception of Single Mothers in Birmingham and Alabama Areas
Despite the increasing prevalence of single-parent households, offensive stereotypes continue to endure. Roman (2011) conducted an analysis of representations of divorced and never-married single mothers and discovered that although negative depictions of the previous have declined since the turn of the century, negative portrayals of the latter appear to be as prevalent today as they were in the early 1900s. Moreover, research has consistently demonstrated that the perception of single mothers is predominantly unfavorable. Comparisons have been made between single mothers and other parent groups, including intact nuclear families, married parents, members of marginalized communities such as people of color, low-income parents, and gay and lesbian parents.
Single mothers have become familiarized to the social disapproval that Alabama culture directed to them. The single mothers encountered such hostility from acquaintances, and even members of their own family. This pertains to the cultural notion that enjoyed widespread acceptance among the Birmingham communities. This finding provided evidence that stigmatization may stem from an individual’s limited cognitive understanding of another. For example, a study conducted by Ross & Rapp (2011) found that Birmingham single mothers without a marital status were perceived less favorably across five distinct dimensions, including parental satisfaction, stability, personal attributes, and security. In their investigation of the perspectives of undergraduates regarding five distinct categories of mothers—single, divorced, married, stepmothers, never-married, and childless single mothers— Roman, (2011) discovered comparable outcomes. The prevailing viewpoint among the students was that unmarried single mothers possessed the least effective parenting skills and had the most strained family relationships.
It is a common misconception that single-mother households are unsupportive and devoid of social support. Kerby (2012) found that economically disadvantaged single mothers are perceived less negatively in terms of oppression. The difficulties encountered by families headed by single mothers were perceived by research participants as arising from individual choices rather than negative preconceived notions regarding family dynamics, which unreasonably impact this demographic. Neglecting to recognize social injustice as a contributing element in the lives of single mothers exacerbates the damage already inflicted upon their reputation (Maier & McGeorge, 2014).
Many single mothers of color in Alabama areas struggle to establish financial stability due to the challenging barriers they face in their pursuit of income. There is a higher likelihood of poverty among minority single mothers, as opposed to white mothers who do the same or reside in two-parent households. Research done by Sandfield & Percy, (2013) found out that in 2010, the poverty rates among African American mothers in Alabama areas was 47.1% and were significantly higher than the national poverty rate of 15.1%.
Roman (2011) acknowledged that there is a correlation between single mothers and inferior levels of educational achievement. Twenty percent are African American single mothers in Birmingham, constituting the variety of women of color among unmarried mothers with no high school diploma. Although single mothers participate in the labor force at a high rate, they are also more susceptible to unemployment. The challenges they face in obtaining full-time employment that offer higher salaries are primarily attributable to the financial obligations associated with child care and other forms of care (Edgemon, 2018). In addition, the majority of employed single mothers of color are service sector workers, where they frequently receive reduced pay and fewer benefits. It is exceedingly challenging for single mothers of color to provide for their families, as they experience disproportionately high rates of poverty and low median incomes compared to other demographic groups (Kerby, 2012).
Wan et al. (2016) argued that in Birmingham, single mothers encounter a multitude of forms of social disapproval. As a result of their socioeconomic status and societal inequities, they were occasionally stigmatized for being single mothers. For instance, in the event of a divorce, a woman who became a single mother would face social stigma. If, however, her spouse died, she was considered a virtuous woman (Wan et al., 2016). In general, society of Birmingham held unmarried mothers who had experienced a divorce in contempt and held them accountable for all that had transpired negatively. Widows received greater compassion from society in comparison to unmarried single mothers. (Jagger & Wright, 2003) states that the polar opposite is true for widows; they will perpetually be held responsible for the divorce decision of their spouses. It is common for other married women to defend their spouses when an individual obtained the status of a single mother. They feared that their spouses might be abducted by them. Single mothers appeared to be in an absolute urgent need of males.
Social inequity is another consequence of the surroundings faced by unmarried mothers. Conversely, their classification as low-income single mothers adversely affected how society and appropriate assistance agencies perceived them. The findings of the work done by Ross & Rapp (2011) indicated that this demographic encountered unique social treatment on account of their status as low-income single mothers. While Kerby (2012) did draw attention to the differential treatment of single mothers on the basis of their social standing, other studies have concentrated on disparities related to income and gender. Once more, this discovery is associated with the cultural background of the Alabama population. Numerous individuals believed that single mothers were inferior in value to their offspring (Sandfield & Percy, 2013).
The wage disparity becomes more pronounced when considering women of color: single Black women earn 69.5% of the earnings of white males in Birmingham (Jagger & Wright, 2013). The labor market treatment of unmarried mothers, who earn less than men, married women, and childless women, is similarly inequitable. Black mothers who work alone to support their children are disproportionately impacted by the wage gap. Research done by Jagger & Wright (2013) indicated that single mothers responsible for rearing their children face significant barriers to wealth accumulation and are disproportionately likely to be impoverished. Families with reduced income have less disposable income to invest in asset and wealth accumulation strategies such as pension plans. It can be difficult for families to accumulate wealth through investing and saving when their incomes are modest. Additionally, retirement stability is impacted by wealth, which impacts financial stability.
Positive Self Perceptions of Single Mothers in Birmingham and Alabama Areas
Even though the focus of this study is on how society views single mothers in Birmingham and Alabama areas, the positive self-perceptions that single mothers report should not be disregarded. It may be due to the societal idealization of the two-parent, opposite-sex family that research on single mothers is scarce. Research done by Jagger & Wright (2013) concluded that despite the stigmatizing environment associated with this particular family structure, unmarried mothers have managed to maintain positive self-perceptions. The author engaged in conversations with unmarried African American single mothers who were beneficiaries of assistance. They expressed that despite the stigma associated with childbearing outside of marriage, they believed they were capable of handling the responsibilities of mothers and caregivers without the assistance of a husband (Jagger & Wright, 2013)
Dmitrii Sergeev (2023) argued that Birmingham’s single mothers claimed that their social standing improved despite the stigmatizing environment due to their adeptness at navigating the numerous obstacles associated with being a single parent in an impoverished society. Positive self-perceptions regarding personal and ideological aspects are among the additional attributes that have been noted regarding unmarried mothers. Significantly, these mothers demonstrate a substantial capacity for joy and a reduction in social stigma.
Furthermore, Dmitrii Sergeev (2023) states that the single mothers in Alabama held the belief that their positive self-perception was influenced by factors such as a consistent income, employment, and high self-esteem.
Alongside these favorable perceptions of single mothers, Roman (2011) conducted interviews with twenty-five divorced single mothers regarding their own experiences as single parents. Each mother expressed a positive sentiment regarding her status as a single parent and held the belief that the emotional advantages outweighed the disadvantages. The participants elaborated on the favorable transformations that occurred in their emotional welfare, encompassing enhanced independence, self-assurance, and gratitude towards their capacity to independently nurture their children. Qualitative interviews done by Locher et al. (2015) revealed that single mothers who perceived their community as a threat benefited significantly from having a weak psychological sense of community, in addition to the psychological advantages. Determining when support networks prove to be ineffective is thus a critical competency that single mothers must possess in order to establish enduring connections.
Gordon & Nair, (2013) reported that in comparison to adolescents residing in other family structures, those who were raised in single-mothers households exhibited greater tendency to assume household responsibilities and reported greater degrees of autonomy. These findings suggest that the favorable self-perceptions that children of single-mothers households experience are representative of the entire family unit (Gordon & Nair, 2003). Given its significant value in Western societies and its potential utility for single-breadwinner households as a survival skill, autonomy development is paramount.
Oakley, (2018), examined the attributes that distinguish single parents and found that, as a collective, single-mothers households experienced decreased levels of domestic conflict and stress as a result of the two adults no longer living together. According to their reports, families headed by single mothers tended to be more cohesive, adaptable, and resistant to change. Single mothers are actively working to redefine their position in society and are resisting the stigma associated with being a single parent (Oakley, 2018). Given that economic status has a direct and positive correlation with the self-reported well-being of single mothers, there may be a substantial wage gap among this population. Mothers who are parenting their children by themselves frequently praise the virtues of affection and intimacy that they share with their offspring. Single mothers may therefore be less personally affected by these negative perceptions if they hold the belief that society has a favorable opinion of them (Wan et al., 2016).
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