Literature Review
The contemporary world is experiencing significant changes in patterns of family structures and set-ups due to the increased number of children growing up in single-parent homes or out of wedlock because of circumstances such as illness, death and divorce, to name a few. Families from different cultural and contextual backgrounds are configured differently. However, the aspect of single families has become a norm in a considerable population of households across the globe. In consideration of the traditional family set-up, maternal gatekeeping, social norms and the father’s occupation were blamed for fathers’ declined involvement in their children’s lives. Literature has failed and neglected to look into aspects such as leisure pursuits and fathers’ characteristics that contribute to their involvement, in addition to the negative factors such as general businesses, selfishness, disinterest and laziness. The literature review provides an in-depth analysis of the reasons leading to fathers’ absence in the lives of their adolescent boys and how this affects their well-being. The literature review carries out exhaustive research through various scholarly databases, including ProQuest, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, JSTOR, ERIC and Google Scholar. From the generated sources, the literature review has developed several themes pertaining to the research topic in a synchronised and coordinated approach.
Definition of Father’s Absence
The definition of the term father’s absence is vast and does not take a single definition. The definition changes based on the aspect of a researcher, but most of the definitions tend to align with the same perspectives. Black (2008)defined an absent father as a male figure who does not offer financial assistance to his family and lacks physical interaction with his child. On the other hand, East et al. (2006) defined a father’s absence as the one who is missing, deceased or not present in the life of a child because of several circumstances. As established by Markowitz & Ryan (2016), three primary situations result in a father’s decision to become absent in the life of a child. First, a father can be lacking in the life of a child because of a casual sexual encounter with the mother. The second cause of a child’s no-residential status is a break up after a short or long-term relationship. Lastly, the issue is the dissolution or end of a marriage.
Looking at the characteristics of a father’s absence, Black (2008) disclosed characteristics present in African American fathers who are absent in their children’s lives. Specifically, the research considered collective case studies as a way of comprehending their emotional beliefs, perceptions and life experiences. To look at the developmental characteristics of absent African American fathers, the research considered six African American fathers who were lacking in their children’s lives. From the study, it was identified that all the participants had a shame-based identity in the early years of their fatherhood. Moreover, there was a feeling of inferiority. Most of them experienced romantic relationships characterised by isolation instead of intimacy. The respondents pointed out that their lives were stagnated, and they did not have any productivity in life. In the research, it is evident that most of the participants were absent in their children’s lives due to financial constraints.
Theme 1: Father’s Absence and Emotional Consequences
A prevalent theme in this literature is how a father’s absence due to divorce, separation, and incarceration emotionally affects adolescent boys. Markowitz & Ryan (2016) conceptualise the relationship between father absence and emotional development by pointing out that nearly half of American children experience father absence at some point in their childhood. Nonresident fatherhood causes suboptimal outcomes in adolescents, such as delinquent behaviours and depressive symptoms. Limited parental involvement is associated with developing masculinity norms to support male superiority while disregarding others’ emotions and vulnerability (Mohaupt, Duckert & Askeland, 2021). The authors found harsher fathering practices and prevalent intimate partner violence because most men were exposed to early trauma and stress in adolescence. Sear, Sheppard & Coall (2019) supported this view by indicating that the early-life family environment and the father’s absence influence adaptive responses among adolescent boys. Enforcing policies and programs to reduce nonresident fatherhood’s negative impact on adolescent behaviour will enhance teenage boys’ behavioural, physical, and psychological well-being.
Moreover, the research by Miranda et al. (2016) emphasised this relationship by indicating that parental rejection influences adolescent maladjustment to overcome emotional turmoil. Miranda et al. used the rejection theory to explain the impact of paternal rejection on adolescent adjustment. Parental rejection contributes to maladaptive symptoms and behaviours among adolescent boys who become aggressive and hostile towards peers due to difficulties in regulating emotions (Di Giunta et al., 2022). Adolescent boys growing up without fathers develop undesired behaviours due to the lack of emotional closeness and therapeutic relationships. Goggin, Werkmeister Rozas & Garran (2016) involve a case about Marcus’ anxiety and anger to explain how his emotional distance from family members led to emotional distress. The authors discuss how a social worker enables Marcus to regulate emotions and address his struggles through an emotional connectedness to his mother and sister.
A father’s absence causes emotional distress, and since adolescence is a critical developmental stage, adolescents adjust to an environment where they are raised and guided by a single parent. According to Spruit et al. (2020), insecure attachment to primary caregivers causes depression in children and adolescents. Spruit et al. (2020) found an intersection between parental gender and attachment among adolescents, suggesting that the father’s absence causes discomfort that elevates stress. Adolescents internalise problem behaviours from the family environment, leading to a negative association with adaptive functioning when there are inadequate or unavailable support mechanisms (Vrolijk et al., 2020). Unlike supportive environments in stable families, single-parent families do not build inner resources, including emotional integration and intrinsic motivation among adolescents. Adolescents become violent when they witness bullying, binge drinking, and partner/guardian partner violence while growing up (Taquette & Monteiro, 2019). Adolescents become violent and victimise their peers when their fathers are not involved in their upbringing.
Boys growing up without active parental involvement are at a higher risk of emotional distress compared with peers. The family environment exposes adolescents to stressful life events, resulting in feelings of inadequacy (Krauss, Orth & Robins, 2020). Father absence increases adolescent boys’ vulnerability to increased school problems, leading to suspensions and reduced educational aspirations. According to Lei & Lundberg (2020), boys in father-absent households and less-educated neighbourhoods experience long-term economic outcomes such as unemployment and low income. The 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth had a similar finding to the study by Lei & Lundberg (2020), indicating how father absence influences gender differences in behaviour in school. Tan et al. (2020) support this view by indicating parents shape how adolescents process, regulate, and react to emotions. Father absence increases barriers to adolescent boys’ schooling as this behavioural disadvantage hinders educational persistence to enhance academic performance and achieve professional success.
Theme 2: Father Absence and Behavioral Consequences
The behavioural consequences of absentee fathers on adolescent boys is another theme in this literature review. According to Golding & Fitzgerald (2019), there is a gender difference in the involvement in violent crimes, as adolescent males are more likely to be arrested and imprisoned than adolescent females. This arrest and imprisonment trend underscores the role of father absence in influencing delinquency among adolescent males. DeCamp (2019) found that the father’s absence is a risk factor increasing adolescents’ likelihood to play violent games. Adolescence is a critical development period as it influences boys’ psychological self (Golding & Fitzgerald, 2019). The authors use father absence, early caregiver abuse, and neglect to explain the male preponderance of violence. Increased violence among adolescents among adolescents is a risk factor for incarceration, which remains a pressing social issue influencing public health outcomes in the US (Barnert et al., 2021).
Conditions that encourage physical aggression and violence among adolescent boys are linked to their vulnerability to disorganisation during early developmental years. Exposure to maltreatment during childhood and adolescence results in deleterious effects among adolescents, which impacts their future parenting behaviours (Savage et al., 2019). Effective parenting influences the development of early adolescent leader behaviours by enhancing self-esteem and self-efficacy (Liu et al., 2019). However, different child-rearing roles among mothers (Primary caregivers) and fathers (Breadwinners) influence their interactions and relations with adolescents (Hou et al., 2020). Lack of attachment to parents, especially for adolescent boys living in single-parent families, increases the likelihood of behaviour under control, antisocial behaviour, and violence.
Major depression is a prevalent problem among adolescents in single-mother households. Lu (2019) notes that there is a link between the rising prevalence of depression among adolescent boys and the father’s absence. Single-mother households increase the risk of developing depression due to less authoritative parents enforcing lenient measures to enhance adolescents’ school experiences. Parental care and the level of parental control influence the time spent together with adolescents to minimise excessive internet use (Faltýnková et al., 2020). Parental separation due to incarceration disrupts the family system, resulting in substance misuse and increased suicide rates among adolescents (Quinn et al., 2022). When adolescents have less authoritative parents, there are lowered chances of accessing treatment and medication to enhance their psychological well-being.
Adolescents reinforce health-risk behaviours when there are no evidence-based interventions to enable them to cope with absentee fathers. Ma et al. (2022) found that most Chinese left-behind adolescents lacked self-esteem, grit, and prosocial behaviours because they were separated from one or both of their parents. Adolescents’ relationship with their parents, whether married, separated, or divorced, influences the onset of problematic behaviours, including aggression and depression, that compromise academic success (Karhina et al., 2023). Keizer et al. (2019) discuss how father-absent households contribute to a gender gap in educational attainment, as girls are more likely to achieve academic aspirations compared with boys. Single-parent families have led to a growing number of depressed adolescents who cannot access adequate support and care to enhance their well-being. Developing evidence-based interventions to resolve conflicts associated with a father’s absence prevents adolescents from developing problematic behaviours that affect their well-being (Del Hoyo-Bilbao et al., 2018).
Theme 3: Impact of a Father’s Absence
With a focus on comprehending the influence of the presence of a father, several researchers have been conducted on how the absence of a father leads to the development of a negative impact on the well-being of offspring. A study by Senior (2010) identified that the absence of a father has adverse effects on the well-being of their children. From this study, which was supported by East et al. (2006), it was identified that adolescents raised without a father are exposed to increased chances of suffering from antisocial behaviour and a negative influence on their psychological and social well-being. The study’s conclusion by Senior (2010) showed that a father’s positive involvement in the life of change leads to a reduction in levels of distress and psychological maladjustment in the children’s lives. As established by Cabrera et al. (2007b), it is evident that a father’s commitment to a child’s well-being in terms of being supportive positively and sensitive influences the educational development and cognition language during the early years of development. Furthermore, Downer et al. (2008) conducted a review of 291 articles whose focus was on the relationship between childhood learning and the father’s involvement. Of the 291 articles, only nine were able to identify the correlation between father involvement and school readiness, language abilities, educational attainment, and cognitive abilities of a child. By increased control of maternal involvement, the research was able to identify the fact that the father’s participation in the child’s activities significantly impacts the child’s academic outcomes ( Cabrera et al., 2007a). The research identified that a father’s use of language, financial contribution, nurturance, parenting satisfaction, responsibility, warmth and presence positively influence a child’s academic development.
In order to develop an in-depth understanding of the influence of a father’s absence and how it affects the academic well-being of a child, Sabillo (2024) found out that parental separation or divorce has an extensive effect on the child’s educational, social and emotional well-being. The research showed that children who experience parent absenteeism due to parent separation or divorce could encounter a range of emotions that include but are not limited to rage, sorrow, and confusion. Additionally, the research also showed that such children could experience loyalty issues and can experience guilt as they may be subjected to a situation where they need to choose which parent they favour. The research outcome showed that in most instances, fathers are the ones who are absent, and this causes a feeling of tension, anxiety, insecurity and instability, and this dramatically affects the academic performance of children raised without a father.
According to Golding & Fitzgerald (2019), it is evident that most of the adolescents who portray defiant and criminal behaviours hail from dysfunctional families where mostly the father is absent in the life of a child. Keizer et al. (2019) studied the differences that exist between boys living without a father and those whose fathers are present and found out that most of the teenagers brought up without a father tend to engage in criminal activities and are also exposed to drugs at a tender age. Additionally, the research further identified the fact that most of the youth who are incarcerated are because of the absence of the father in their lives. Youths from families that have no father have higher chances of experiencing socioeconomic disadvantages, and this may push them to engage in criminal activities. Moreover, Mendle et al. (2009) also carried out research that compared households with the biological father present and those raised without the biological father’s presence. The research was considered to use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY79). The independent variables in the research were demographic information, genetic relatedness, age at first sexual intercourse and the father’s absence. The outcome of the study showed that participants who were raised without the presence of the biological father reported an earlier age when they first had a sexual encounter, and this, to a great extent, increased the chances of teenage pregnancy. The study by Mendle et al. (2009) found that the absence of a father in the early years of a child could lead to detrimental experiences that influence one’s decision to childbearing and mating. Therefore, the research was able to identify the fact that early sexual activity rates are highest in households with no fathers.
Theme 4: Importance of a Father’s Presence
A father’s presence is vital during a child’s developmental phases and plays a significant role in shaping that child’s future. In contrast to the benefits associated with the presence of a father in a child’s life, there are consequences experienced by a child when the father is absent, and this dramatically affects a child’s cognitive development. As established by Lu (2019), fathering activities include but are not limited to ethical and moral guidance, the provision of care, and meeting that child’s financial obligations. Similarly, Lei (2020) defined fathering as the ability of the father to become involved in the life of a child or children, such as supporting them emotionally, showing affection, availability, caregiving, monitoring and teaching them. Studies on father’s presence show that fathers interact with their children at varying levels and degrees. A survey by Mutha showed that fathers provide unique play experiences compared to mothers, which positively stimulates children’s cognitive ability and sociability. Miranda et al. (2016) showed that the presence of a father in a boy’s life leads to a reduction in aggressive behaviours as fathers can instil discipline in their children. Mohaupt et al. (2021) argued that the presence of a father in a male child’s life greatly influences the child’s emotional, psychological and social development. The research found that in most instances, boys’ academic performance tends to be impaired when their father is absent. Fathers also offer their sons the fatherhood template and teach them how to handle their families when they become fathers. The presence or absence of the father in a male child’s life is a significant predictor of how the child will parent in future.
A study by Ellis et al. (2021) showed that the role played by fathers has, in recent years, undergone significant shifts; historically, the role of fathers in the lives of their children has been ignored by researchers and behavioural scientists. However, recent research on the subject has shown that the love of a father is directly associated with the child’s academic performance, emotional stability, and psychological well-being. Ellis et al. (2021) also argued that despite the changing roles of fathers, fathers have a vital role in enhancing the well-being and healthy development of their children. In support of Ellis, Bronte-Tinkew (2008)pointed out that a father’s involvement in a child’s life promotes the child’s cognitive development. Considering young and teenage boys, the father’s participation can answer questions of validation and approval. When young men engage with their fathers, they tend to be predisposed to affirmations, and they also tend to develop a sense of security and safety. The study by Bronte-Tinkew (2008)also showed that the presence of a father in the children’s lives helps the children as they turn to young adults to easily handle aggression and improve the ability of the children to maintain relations without losing emotional control. Additionally, these children tend to be sociable and self-regulated and do not display disruptive behaviour.
Theme 5: Emotion Regulation in Adolescent Boys and Father’s Absence
Adolescence is a vital stage in a child’s growth as it comes with psychological and emotional changes that call for parents to closely examine the child. Research conducted by Van Lissa et al. (2019) focuses on the role played by fathers when it comes to emotional regulation, comparing it to the role played by mothers. The study’s outcome shows that mothers and fathers have different approaches to emotional regulation. The research showed that both parents are responsible for contributing to their children’s emotional development. Van Lissa et al. (2019) emphasise that the role of fathers in emotional regulation cannot be ignored despite the mother’s parenting behaviours. From the study, it is evident that the presence of fathers in the lives of their adolescent children is vital when it comes to emotional development. The absence of a father can interfere with the ability of adolescents to develop skills needed for emotion regulation, and this can result in challenges when it comes to handling emotions by such individuals.
In support of Van Lissa et al. (2019), Kapetanovic and Skoog (2021) emphasise the importance and the need for parents and fathers to develop positive relations with their adolescent children. The study argues that the development of such positive relations plays a vital role in helping children develop practical skills for managing and controlling their emotions.
Theme 6: Father’s Absence and Psychological Impact on Adolescent Boys
The absence of a father during the adolescent years of a child can have immense psychological effects, especially for boys. The absence of these can negatively influence their social functioning, emotional well-being, and the development of their masculine identity. A study conducted by Parke and Cookston (2019) showed that fathers play a foundational role when it comes to the development of masculinity among their male children. Pleck (2018), on the other hand, examined the role of male identity in the life of boys and how this leads to the development of a sense of masculinity. As confirmed by Corneau (2018), it is evident that the absence of a father in the life of a male child can lead to the development of a low sense of masculinity. Corneau (2018) also argues that the absence of a father in the life of a boy has tremendous psychological implications, and this can be seen from the fact that boys who lack a father in their lives tend to have low self-esteem and develop a sense of abandonment. The ideas brought out by Parke & Cookston, Pleck (2018) and Corneau (2018) show that the absence of a father in the life of a male child can significantly impact their social functioning, emotional well-being and masculine identity.
Theme 6: Delinquency among Adolescent Boys and Father’s Absence
Porter & King (2015) carried out a research focusing on paternal incarceration and delinquency. The focus was to examine whether the incarceration of a father can result in delinquency among adolescent boys. The study was able to capture the complexities that are associated with delinquency; the outcome of the research showed that the incarceration of fathers leaves a gap in the life of their adolescent boys, and this exposes them to the lack of a father figure to help them cope with the day-to-day challenges that they face in life. From this, adolescent boys can lack a mentor in their lives, and this may force them to engage in criminal activities and also expose them to drugs and substance abuse (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). Flouri et al. (2016) conducted a longitudinal study analysing the relationship between father involvement and child problem behaviour in intact families. The focus of the research was assessing the participation of fathers in the lives of their children; the outcome of the study showed that the presence of the father plays a vital role in dealing with the risk of delinquency among their children. The result of the research emphasised the need for fathers to be present in their children’s lives. In support of the above ideas, Nisar et al. (2015) conducted a study examining the various aspects that lead to juvenile delinquency. The research showed that there are multifaceted aspects that influence and lead to the development of delinquent behaviour in families where the father is absent. The study was able to identify the fact that the absence of a father dramatically leads to the development of delinquent behaviour.
Additionally, Mwangangi (2019) also researched the role of a father’s absence in the development of juvenile delinquency (Pitsoane & Gasa, 2018). The research underscores the need for a father’s presence in enforcing positive behaviour among male children. By focusing on the role of fathers, the research emphasised the importance of a father in the life of male children.
Theme 7: Characteristics of a Father’s Absence
Several factors predispose men to become absent fathers. However, it is evident that the absence of fathers has, in recent years, become a common phenomenon. This has been linked to changes in the traditional nuclear family, socioeconomic changes, industrialisation and globalisation. As pointed out by Phasha et al. (2020), most of the families or households in South Africa are characterised by the father’s absence. The increased number of households without fathers has led to a need to study this concept (Magqamfana & Bazana, 2020). The absence of fathers in the lives of their children has been associated with several aspects, such as abuse of drugs and alcohol, poor academic performance, low self-esteem and poverty, to name a few (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). The study was able to identify several outcomes which were in line with previous studies on the topic. First, the study found out that the absence of a father forces boys to start playing the father’s role to protect their families. Due to these, the absence of the father forces the boys to start engaging in criminal activities while they are still young, as supported by (Nieuwenhuis, 2016). Phasha et al. (2020) also found out that families where the father is absent are characterised by material deprivation because single mothers take both the role of the father and mother. This conclusion is in line with Spjeldnaes et al. (2014), who identified that families led by single mothers are subjected to high levels of poverty, and the absence of the father can be attributed to this.
Additionally, another study conducted by Van den Berg & Makusha (2018) showed that when a home does not have a father, the responsibility of provision is left to the mother, and sometimes the responsibility is extended to the children, especially the male children. This study is in line with the current research that most young and adolescent boys cannot effectively meet the needs of their families. To add to the analysed sources, Richter & Lemola (2017), boys who have their fathers in their lives have easy access to economic resources compared to those raised by a single mother. This means that boys raised in households with no father have to work extra hard to access economic resources, which sometimes has an immense toll on their emotional well-being.
In consideration of the characteristics of a father’s absence, Burgner (2020) presented two analytic cases to examine the oedipal experience and how it relates to the effects of a father’s absence in a child’s life. From the case analysis, it is evident that the absence of a father in a child’s life leads to altered feelings, which affect a child’s emotions. Moreover, the case studies show that a father’s absence can lead to an identity crisis (Burgner, 2020). Additionally, the case analysis revealed that the father’s absence can interfere with the ability of children to develop traditional gender roles; in this case, the male children can lack a role model to guide them on these roles. Moreover, the study showed that the absence of a father can interfere with the ability of children to develop outstanding relationships and may force such children to become absent fathers in the future. Freeks (2017) researched how to respond to the issue of fatherlessness and father absence in South Africa. The outcome of the study showed that most of the absent fathers had no father figure when they were growing up, which negatively impacted their childhood. The research outcome is supported by Sear et al. (2019), who argued that absent fathers cause a lot of suffering and pain in their homes. The narrative is in line with the research conducted by Frosh et al. (2017) that the absence of fathers has led to a social dilemma and that this absence has an undeniable impact on the lives of sons, which in most instances results in emotional and self-image problems.
2.2 Methodology
The literature review part included the selection of scholarly sources. Thus, there was a need to develop an inclusion and exclusion approach to be used in selecting valid and credible sources. The first step in the development of the strategy was the identification of relevant databases, and through this, several databases were identified, including ProQuest, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, JSTOR, ERIC and Google Scholar. The second phase of developing the inclusion and exclusion criteria was the definition of the keywords used to search for articles, and they included; ‘father absence’, ‘adolescent boys’, ’emotional well-being’, ‘family structure’, ‘masculine identity’, ‘father-son’, ‘behavioural problem’, ‘single-parent’, ’emotional regulation’, and ‘delinquency’. The development of the inclusion criteria also included the definition of targets that the resources should be able to meet. In this case, the considered articles had to be written in English, which means that any articles not written in English were not considered; furthermore, the considered articles had to be scholarly or peer-reviewed to uphold the validity and credibility of the review. Considering the exclusion criteria, the literature review did not consider papers printed before 2008, which helped to ensure that the provided list would be manageable for analysis between 2008 and the current date. The inclusion and exclusion criteria also included screening the articles to ensure that they were aligned with the needs of the literature review. After this, the articles were reviewed thoroughly to ensure that their outcomes and findings were aligned with the needs of the review. Adhering to this protocol ensured that all the sources considered for the research were valid and credible.
2.3 Conclusion
The literature review focused on how the absence of a father impacts the emotional well-being of adolescent boys. To arrive at a unified conclusion, the literature review focused on analysing fifty articles touching on the topic of discussion. From the analysis, it is evident that the various researchers on the subject of study have identified the impact of a father in the life of adolescent boys. Based on the outcome of the literature review, there is a need to comprehend the various aspects related to fathering activities. For instance, the literature review makes it clear that understanding the absence of a father in the life of adolescent boys is essential because of the detrimental effects that the absence has on the life of a child. This understanding can help in the development of approaches that can be used to deal with the negative impact that is present on too many adolescent boys. In the literature review, several themes have emerged and have played an essential role in detailing the events that led to father absenteeism and have helped to disclose the emotional impact that the absenteeism has on a child’s life. Therefore, the literature review pointed out factors leading to absent fathers and characteristics of absent fathers. Identifying such variables can be used to discover support that can help encourage fathers to remain active in the lives of their adolescent boys. However, the literature review shows that there is still an information gap on fathers’ absence and its impact on the emotional well-being of teenage sons. For this reason, further research is required to develop an in-depth understanding of a father’s absence in the life of adolescent sons. Furthermore, future research should focus on absent fathers by using approaches such as phenomenological approaches to reveal stories and rationale from the perspective of the fathers.
2.4 Results and Findings
In the literature review, an analysis of the impact of a father’s absence in the life of an adolescent son was conducted. Providing an evaluation and explaining the aspects of absent fathers’ factors, rationales, and perspectives were presented to explain and understand the phenomenon and provide recommendations for future research. The outcome of the literature review indicated the importance of a father in the life of an adolescent boy. Despite the extensive information on the topic, it was evident that studies focusing on teenage boys and fathers’ absence are limited. In consideration of what leads to the absenteeism of the father from the life of a child, the literature review was able to identify that, in most instances, the phenomenon is triggered by aspects such as separation from the mother, incarceration, lack of employment, and the father had engaged in sexual activities while still young. Additionally, the literature review confirmed that fathers who were raised in the absence of their fathers also have a high chance of becoming absent fathers in the future. The literature review revealed that the absence of a father results in several outcomes in the life of the child, and they include but are not limited to early delinquency, low self-esteem, emotional problems, unstable relationships and father hunger. Most of the adolescent boys who are brought up without a father have a desire to have a relationship with their father as a guiding figure to masculinity. The lack of a guiding figure causes such adolescent boys to engage in criminal activities, and this leads to increased teenage delinquency. In other instances, young adolescents are forced to help their struggling families meet their financial obligations, forcing them to engage in criminal activities.
From the literature review, it can be argued that a father’s absence in the life of an adolescent boy can have an immense impact on the emotional well-being of such boys. In most cases, young and adolescent boys who lack their fathers in their lives experience a lot of difficulties, especially when dealing with their emotions, and this can result in an inability to regulate emotions, leading to depression, stress and anxiety. Moreover, adolescent boys brought up without the presence of their fathers tend to have unfunctional relationships due to identity issues, and this can have an immense effect on their emotional well-being and masculinity. Furthermore, the outcome of the literature review showed that the absence of fathers in the lives of adolescent boys is associated with increased delinquent behaviour. Without the support, supervision and guidance of the father, adolescent boys can engage in criminal activities, violence and substance abuse. The literature review shows that the absence of fathers can lead to disconnection, and this can force such boys to find validation from their peers who engage in criminal activities. The literature review also showed that the absence of a father can strain the relationships of adolescent boys as they grow. The absence of a father in the life of a child can result in high levels of conflict and stress, making it difficult for these young adults to interact with their families and those around them effectively. Furthermore, the absence of a father can result in a lack of a role model for young men and boys, leading to complicated relationships for the young boys. In summation, the absence of fathers in the lives of adolescent boys has behavioural, psychological and emotional effects. Therefore, researchers on mental health and educators can use the findings from the literature review to develop support resources that can be used to improve the lives of adolescent boys experiencing the absence of a father and also support absent fathers and help them develop positive relations with their children.
2.4 Implications for Policy, Practice and Future Social Work Research
The literature review will have several implications for policy, practice, and future research in social work. In consideration of policy implications, the literature review can be used to create programs to rehabilitate delinquent boys who have no fathers in their lives. Additionally, the results can be used in the development of legal reforms to make co-parenting easy and effective as a way of encouraging the presence of fathers even in situations where divorce or separation has occurred. Looking at the implications of practice, social workers, therapists, and counsellors can use the literature review to strengthen single parents and empower fatherless children. The literature review shows that despite the vast amount of information on the research topic, no significant studies have been conducted exclusively with a focus on fathers and why they chose to become absent in the lives of their adolescent boys. Therefore, future research should focus on fathers to understand their perspective on their absence. Also, future research should focus on developing interventions that can be used to support single-parent households in dealing with the absence of a father.
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