Introduction
The landscape of Korean education, deeply embedded within its long historical tapestry, has played a pivotal role in defining both its national identity and social structures. The origin of education in Korea goes back to the prehistoric era, but well-organized systems are noted to have taken root during the Three Kingdoms period (Hays, 2022). Public education, rooted in Confucianism and Buddhism, was established as early as 372 AD, signifying a society that has valued learning since its early history (Glavin, 2022).
Education in Korea is a mirror that reflects on what the kingdom values, philosophical beliefs, and social arrangements have been traversing through the epochs, from the ancient Gojoseon, through the Three Kingdoms, across the Silla and Goryeo dynasties, to the scholarly zenith of the early Joseon era (Glavin, 2022). Every period yielded progress through the martial filter of Silla, or the Confucian content of Goryeo’s education policies that spread education to countryside zones and established the wager, a civil service examination system that epitomized the educational spirit of the period (Yeong, 2021)
This paper will attempt to explore the complex development of Korean education, showing how it shifted from a simple means of transmitting knowledge to becoming a great influence on Korean cultural identity and societal stratification. This is a trip through the times, being the education influence and influenced by the context when it flourished.
The Dawn of Korean Education
At the beginning of Korean society, education was not organized but rather was part of community life, concentrating on the necessities to survive, such as hunting, fishing, making tools, and fighting. The informal transmission of knowledge played an essential role in unifying the community and in guaranteeing its perpetuation in the face of the challenges posed by nature (Yeong, 2021). Therefore, education in prehistoric times was mostly pragmatic and based on learning through practice, which was the source of social roles and obligations in tribal structures.
The Gojoseon period saw the dawn of a new era in terms of education that started to assume a more organized form, mirroring the transformation of social characteristics and the necessity for an organized rule. The society of Gojoseon was characterized by the advent of agriculture and primitive social morality, as is also noted in the “Samguk Yusa,” which illustrates a more organized society (Hays, 2022) with laws and moral education. The underlying principle of ‘Hongik Ingan’—to ‘live and work for the benefit of all mankind’—became the guiding philosophy of education, stressing the public welfare and establishing the basis for future sophisticated educational systems.
During this time, the satisfaction of the foundations for the future institutions of education was achieved, and the introduction of Confucian and Buddhist thought into the framework of Korean education in the next historical periods was made.
The Influence of Confucianism and Buddhism
In Korea, during the Three Kingdoms Period of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla, education started to evolve into more structured forms, with considerable influence of Confucian and Buddhist teachings (Glavin, 2022). Confucianism and Buddhism, introduced during this period, had been crucial factors in forming the educational system (Cartwright, 2024), impacting not only the curriculum but also the related philosophy and moral framework of the whole society.
Confucianism, which focuses on moral development, social responsibility, and scholarly learning, was the cornerstone of the educational philosophy of the Goguryeo kingdom. Taixue, also called Daehak, was established by Goguryeo in about 372 AD and was another advanced educational institution for the yangban class (Hays, 2022). The curriculum-linked the study of humanities and martial arts in the framework of Confucian philosophy and later included Buddhist doctrines.
Known for its cultural communication with Japan, Baekje spread classical Chinese literature like the “Analects” and the “Thousand Character Classic,” which implied the use of systematic scholarly approaches and the emergence of formal education (Glavin, 2022). In Silla, the importance of martial arts in educational establishments, especially the Hwarang, symbolized the militaristic aspect of the kingdom during invasions. However, after unification with foreign impact, education in Silla grew to include humanities, patterned after the curriculum of China’s Tang dynasty.
These developments signified the beginning of Korea’s educational history, which formed the basis for the advanced systems that would be in the offing in the later years. Educational reforms and institutions that were introduced during the Three Kingdoms Period enabled the emergence of a learned class and social mobility, confirming education as an integral part of Korean society.
The Rise of a Blossoming Scholar Tradition
In the early part of the Unified Silla Dynasty, Korean scholarship was at its high point – Confucian academies thrived, and Buddhism remained a major influence. The emergence of the National Confucian Academy (Gukhak) by the Silla Kingdom in 682 CE and its transformation into the National Confucian University in 750 CE bears testimony to the commitment of the dynasty to Confucian learning. This era also saw the advent of a state examination system in 788 CE, based on Confucian texts. The tests served as the cornerstone for the creation of the bureaucratic structure and strengthened Confucianism as the foundation of society (Havard University, 2019).
In addition, the proliferation of private academies such as the Twelve Assemblies (Sibi) increased educational access for the elite. It contributed to the spread of Confucian ideals throughout the kingdom (Cartwright, 2024). The character education that these schools provided was comprehensive and included humanities and character development, with people like Choe Chung, known as ‘the Confucius of Korea,’ setting up the first private Confucian school (Havard University, 2019).
The influence of Confucianism went far beyond the educational sphere and penetrated the government and social attitudes of the day (New World Encyclopedia, 2019). Confucian principles of hierarchy, duty, and moral order became the foundation for both internal politics and foreign relations, forming a Korean identity that China greatly respected. This epoch was a starting point of the future emergence of Neo-Confucianism, which would more firmly fix these values in Korean culture and politics.
The Rise of Neo-Confucianism
The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 CE) brought in the Gwageo. This strict civil service examination served as a major way for upward social mobility and the emergence of the scholar-official class. Gwageo was founded by Gwangjong in 958 CE, and it was heavily inspired by the Confucian-based imperial examination system of the Tang Dynasty in China (New World Encyclopedia, 2019). The intent was not only to oust efficient administrators but also to strengthen monarchical dominion, thereby curbing the wealthy regional aristocrats and promoting a merit-based administration.
The Gwageo examinations demanded extensive learning of Confucian texts and were a must for anybody who wished to join the government’s official cadres. In theory, the exams were accessible to all males except the enslaved people, but in practice, it was the yangban, the ruling class, who could afford the years of study needed to pass (New World Encyclopedia, 2019). Therefore, Gwageo served as a means to support social structures and even provided a way for non-aristocrats to rise higher in society through their recognized scholarship.
With time, the system grew to cover several areas, such as medicine, astrology, and geography, a reflection of the diverse needs of the state. Contrary to the idea of meritocracy, the Gwageo system was finally corrupted by political powers in the regions and was criticized for its rigid structure and control by privatized interests (New World Encyclopedia, 2019). However, the Korean civil service examination system continued to be the central part of Korean governance till its abolition in 1894.
The system of civil service paved the way for the subsequent supremacy of Neo-Confucianism in the Joseon Dynasty, which adopted it as the state ideology, thus strengthening the place of education and academic success in Korean society.
The Democratization of Education
The establishment of Hangul by King Sejong the Great in 1443 made literacy more democratic in the early Joseon Dynasty. This new script opened reading and writing to the masses, thereby sapping the monopoly of the elite on education. Sungkyunkwan, the royal Confucian academy, was a cornerstone of education for commoners, and therefore, Sejong’s ideal of an enlightened society was realized. The introduction of Hangul caused a revolutionary change that increased Korean literacy and contributed to Korea’s cultural and economic growth. Nowadays, Sejong’s heritage is also honored, and Hangul is a crucial feature of high literacy and educational success in South Korea.
Korean Identity Developed in Korean Education
The educational progress in Korea has played a dominating role in creating a unique national identity, which is obtained by including cultural and national heritage in the curriculum (Msheidi, 2013). Education has helped people understand their national values and the significance of respecting different cultural values, which has, in turn, led to a more powerful sense of nationhood (Msheidi, 2013). This process of educational inclusion helps one to reinforce his or her own identity and encourages respect for diversity, thus demonstrating how national identity formation and educational practices are interconnected.
Conclusion
The educational revolution in Korea, from its primitive form in the tribal society as the Confucian academies and the invention of Hangul, has been the core factor in forming its social structure and identity. The educational reforms of each period, such as the Gwageo system of the Goryeo Dynasty or the democratization of education with Hangul of the Joseon Dynasty, played an important role in building a national identity, spreading literacy, social mobility, and a single cultural heritage over entire Korea peninsula.
REFERENCES
Cartwright, M. (2024). Buddhism in Ancient Korea. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/973/buddhism-in-ancient-korea/
Glavin, C. (2022). History of Education in South Korea | K12 Academics. https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/Education%20in%20South%20Korea/history-education-south-korea
Havard University. (2019). Confucianism. The Pluralism Project. https://pluralism.org/confucianism
Hays, J. (2022). HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN KOREA: CONFUCIANISM, EXAMS, AND WESTERN AND JAPANESE INFLUENCES | Facts and details. https://factsanddetails.com/korea/South_Korea/Education_Health_Transportation_Infrastructure/entry-7374.html
Msheidi. (2013, October 27). Hangeul and Literacy in Korea | ETEC540: Text Technologies. https://blogs.ubc.ca/etec540sept13/2013/10/27/hangeul-and-literacy-in-korea/
New World Encyclopedia. (2019). Korean Confucianism – New World Encyclopedia. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Korean_Confucianism
Yeong. (2021, May 28). The education system in Korea throughout history. Creatrip. https://creatrip.com/en/news/10180/Education%20System%20In%20Korea%20Throughout%20History
write