Introduction
Modern prison systems are descendants of theories and reforms initiated by several 18th and 19th-century prisoners. In that period, the changing attitude on crime and corrections, which saw social unrest, made the modern penitentiary system what it is today. The reformers that were actively involved included John Howard and Elizabeth Fry. Howard, appalled by the horrendous conditions he witnessed in prisons across Europe, advocated for major reforms like separate confinement, hard labor, and religious instruction (Serrano, 2019). His recommendations helped shape early modern prisons. Similarly, Fry’s activism improved conditions for women prisoners, instituting female overseers, education programs, and an emphasis on rehabilitation. While the early modern prisons that emerged from these reforms were imperfect and continuing problems persisted, the principles established by Howard and Fry underscored a new approach to imprisonment (Serrano, 2019). Their focus on systemic administration, humane treatment of prisoners, and reform goals rather than solely punishment reflect the “birth” of the modern prison. Therefore, the modern prison system originated from 18th and 19th-century reformers like John Howard and Elizabeth Fry, whose pioneering reforms instituted more humane standards and ideals of rehabilitation that have shaped attitudes and practices within prisons for the past two centuries.
John Howard’s reforms
John Howard was one of the pioneering reformers who helped bring about the modern prison system. Howard achieved this through his comprehensive investigations into prison conditions and reform proposals. Howard extensively inspected prisons across England and Europe in the 1770s (Serrano, 2019). What he witnessed shocked him profoundly. Prisons were overcrowded, filthy dens of disease. Prisoners were abused, starved, and neglected. Howard documented the horrendous conditions and cruel mistreatment in his influential 1777 book The State of the Prisons (Serrano, 2019). He called for major reforms to improve basic health, hygiene, and living standards. Howard advocated a “separate system” to prevent communication between prisoners, as he believed corrupting influences and the sharing of criminal schemes corrupted prisoners further (Serrano, 2019). He also promoted regular bathing, clean clothing, healthy diets, and daily exercise for prisoners. Howard additionally stressed the importance of hard labor. He argued prisoners should work productively to pay for their upkeep, learn skills, and keep them occupied. This was preferable to idleness, which could lead to vice.
Religion was another key element, as prayer, contemplation, and Bible study could encourage moral reform. Howard lobbied governments extensively to provide an avenue where prisoners could grow spiritually. His proposals directly shaped the early modern prisons of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Serrano, 2019). The separate system, hard labor, and religious instruction became defining features. While harsh in some respects, Howard’s reforms were undergirded by a belief that prisoners could be reformed through religious regimens rather than purely punished. He brought standards of basic humanity and moral improvement to imprisonment. Howard’s extensive fact-finding and practical suggestions truly laid the groundwork for the modern penitentiary system to take shape.
Elizabeth Fry’s Reforms
Elizabeth Fry was another influential reformer who built upon Howard’s foundation in shaping the modern prison. As a Quaker minister, Fry was appalled by the conditions for female prisoners in Britain in the early 1800s (McNeill, 2022). She began visiting women’s sections of prisons to provide religious ministry and education. Through her prison work, Fry identified major areas for reform. First, Fry insisted women’s sections be supervised by female overseers rather than male guards (McNeill, 2022). This change addressed the sexual exploitation and abuse of women prisoners by their male jailers. Fry recruited and trained matrons to instill order and provide rehabilitation. She also improved healthcare, instituting regular physician visits for sick prisoners. Fry supplied proper clothing and bedding, as many women entered prison with only rags. This helped reduce the rapid spread of disease. Her second major reform area involved establishing structured education and vocational training programs for women prisoners. Fry believed giving women skills and purpose would aid their reintegration into society (McNeill, 2022). Classes focused on literacy, sewing, and religious education. With this blend of moral guidance and practical training, Fry aimed to reform female prisoners into upright, industrious Christians.
Even though Fry did not address all the systemic problems with women’s imprisonment, her advocacy fundamentally changed perceptions of female prisoners being wholly incorrigible. She demonstrated that women prisoners could be rehabilitated with proper oversight and opportunities for self-improvement. Fry’s reforms reinforced emerging modern attitudes that the purpose of incarceration should focus on reforming prisoners’ characters and behaviors (McNeill, 2022). Her model contributed significantly to the evolution of the modern prison system. The modern prison system pays a lot of attention to upholding the prisoners’ rights. As such, the modern prison systems ensure that access to essential food staff and decent healthcare is assured. These changes have profoundly improved the prison systems over the years.
Implications of these Reforms
The reforms that Howard, Fry, and other early prison reformers advocated had significant implications for developing the modern prison system. Their ideas and models for imprisonment represented a shift away from the largely punitive goals of earlier forms of incarceration. Though prisons maintained an element of punishment through deprivation of liberty and hard labor, the purpose became more focused on actively reforming the individual prisoner’s character and morals (Wong, 2023). Howard and Fry introduced standards of humanity, health, order, and opportunities for self-improvement that laid the groundwork for the penitentiary model. While varying in their exact systems, early modern prisons derived from reformist principles. These reforms were characterized by uniform treatment of prisoners, strict discipline and surveillance, separation from corrupting influences, and requirements of labor and moral education (Wong, 2023). This new penitentiary approach emphasized that criminal behaviors could be corrected through a structured environment, isolating prisoners from negative influences and installing new habits and outlooks. The key change was prisons moving from simple detention facilities to total institutions with their internal procedures, routines, and goals.
Early modern prisons remained problematic and punitive even though reforms represented progress. Separation and silence policies were harsh, especially on the marginalized section of the people. Crowding, abuse by guards, and inmate violence also persisted as issues. Discrimination against marginalized groups continued. These marginalized groups included people like blacks and other people of color (Wong, 2023). The belief that they were inferior made them subjected to various levels of ill treatment. Nevertheless, reformers incubated the concept of corrections by establishing standards of humanity, order, and social responsibility within prisons, laying the groundwork for better prisoner treatment and rehabilitation programs to evolve. Their work directed prisons toward being engines of reform rather than just punishment.
Criticisms and Continued Problems
While reformers like Howard and Fry introduced more humane standards and a rehabilitative ideal to prisons, major problems persisted even as the modern prison system developed over the 19th and 20th centuries. Persistent issues included overcrowding, violence, poor living conditions, and inadequate healthcare (Baggio et al., 2020). Additionally, the disproportionate incarceration of marginalized groups like ethnic minorities, the mentally ill, and the poor continued. Discrimination and abuse by guards remained commonplace. The efficacy of prison labor and moral education programs in reforming criminals also came under skepticism (Coppola, 2019). Recidivism rates remained high, calling into question whether prisons were succeeding in their rehabilitation missions. Critics argued the modern prison had simply become a more systematic and bureaucratized form of meting out punishment, not a transformative environment. Further movements like establishing parole, community corrections, and reduced sentencing sought to mitigate these continuing problems. However, the basic structures and practices inaugurated by early reformers have proven entrenched (Coppola, 2019). While prisons have continued improving in meaningful ways, major systemic problems rooted in racism, poverty, and overly punitive attitudes toward crime have endured within the modern prison complex. Ongoing reform is still needed to fulfill the rehabilitative vision pioneered by the early reformers.
Alternatives to Imprisonment
In response to the shortcomings of prisons in achieving rehabilitation and reducing recidivism, reformers have increasingly promoted alternatives to imprisonment. Rather than incarcerating nonviolent offenders, options like probation, community service, and monetary restitution seek to punish crimes proportionally while avoiding the pitfalls of incarceration (Evers et al., 2020). Probation provides supervised release along with mandated requirements like employment and drug testing to monitor and reform offenders. Community service places nonviolent criminals in roles benefitting society, like cleaning roads or parks. Restitution makes offenders directly compensate victims and communities financially for their crimes. For crimes tied to mental illness or addiction, diversion to psychiatric treatment or rehab programs provides help outside prison walls (Evers et al., 2020). Educational and vocational programs to build skills can also be mandated without imprisonment. These alternatives aim to provide accountability and reform nonviolent criminals in less disruptive, stigmatizing ways without fully cutting them off from societal supports needed for rehabilitation (Evers et al., 2020). While prisons will remain necessary for dangerous criminals, their overuse of nonviolent crime has come into question. Alternatives pioneered by 20th-century reformers provide models to reduce prison populations, lower recidivism, and promote rehabilitation effectively for many offenders.
Ongoing Debates and Reforms
The proper role and structure of prisons is still debated today. Reformers continue to grapple with finding the right balance between punishment and rehabilitation as the prime goal of incarceration. Some advocate for more educational opportunities and job training for prisoners to reduce recidivism through rehabilitation (Coppola, 2019). However, others argue prisons should remain punitive to properly condemn criminal acts. Providing better mental healthcare and drug treatment for prisoners with addiction issues could improve outcomes. Safely transitioning prisoners back into society through transitional programs and support is another reform goal to reduce reoffending. Debates around lowering prison populations through diversion programs versus stringent sentencing persist (Coppola, 2019). While solutions are complex with no easy answers, examining the ideas of historical reformers can help illuminate potential improvements. As modern prisons continue to be scrutinized and critiqued, the pioneering vision of early reformers who instilled humanity, order, and a belief in rehabilitation as central to imprisonment provides an invaluable touchstone.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while early modern prisons had many persistent flaws, the pioneering reforms of 18th and 19th-century reformers marked the origination point for the modern prison system. John Howard’s investigations exposed inhumane conditions and established standards of health, order, labor, and moral education that shaped emerging penitentiaries. Elizabeth Fry’s activism instituted critical changes like female oversight and expanded opportunities for women prisoners’ rehabilitation. Together, their work professionalized and systematized prison management for the first time, instilling a new reformative ideal of incarceration. Although these early modern prisons failed to solve many problems like overcrowding, abuse, and discrimination, the groundwork was laid for ongoing reform efforts to build upon. With its foundations tracing back to the ideas of Howard, Fry, and other innovators, the modern prison system was profoundly shaped by their brave efforts to bring humanity, moral improvement, and social responsibility to the treatment of prisoners.
References
Baggio, S., Peigné, N., Heller, P., Gétaz, L., Liebrenz, M., & Wolff, H. (2020). Do overcrowding and turnover cause violence in prison?. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 1015. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.01015/full
Coppola, F. (2019). The brain in solitude: an (other) eighth amendment challenge to solitary confinement. Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 6(1), 184-225. https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/6/1/184/5573653
Evers, T. J., Ogloff, J. R., Trounson, J. S., & Pfeifer, J. E. (2020). Well-being interventions for correctional officers in a prison setting: A review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(1), 3-21. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0093854819869975
Wong, S (2023). Introduction to the Penal System.
McNeill, K. M. (2022). A Re-education on How to Work: Vocational Programs in Kingston-Area Prisons, 1950–1965. Labour, 89, 61-88. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/llt/2022-v89-llt07076/1090026ar/
Serrano, E. (2019). Sex and Prisons: Women and Spanish Penitentiary Reform, 1787‐1808. Journal for Eighteenth‐Century Studies, 42(4), 501-517. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1754-0208.12664
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