Education inequality remains a pervasive problem in the United States (US). Educational opportunities and resources are unequal, leading to differences in achievement and life outcomes. People with low academic achievement cannot secure high-paying jobs, experience difficulties achieving the American dream, and are at increased risk of poverty. Numerous sources of educational inequality exist in the country, including sexism, racism, discrimination against LGBTQ people, and the digital divide. This literature review focuses on racial differences in students’ educational outcomes. It synthesizes four studies to increase understanding of the racial achievement gap and the steps needed to address it.
The racial achievement gap has dominated mainstream discourses on race and education in the past decade. Coe and Kuttner (2018) studied shifts in education coverage in US television news from 1980 to 2014. They explored several education topics, including quality, standards, curriculum, technology, school violence, drugs, racial and gender disparities, and immigration. The researchers found that discourse on racial issues in education accounted for 6.4% of total stories, making it the fourth most covered topic after school violence, quality, and funding (Coe & Kuttner, 2018). The researchers also find that news coverage of racial issues in education has shifted from topics like segregation, desegregation, integration, and bilingualism to an increased focus on the racial achievement gap since 2008 (Coe & Kuttner, 2018). Increased coverage of racial disparities in educational achievement is a positive trend because enhancing the public’s awareness of the social problem can stimulate action. Closing the racial achievement gap will improve economic opportunities for African Americans and other racial minorities, as educational achievement correlates positively with employment and income (Quinn, 2020). Americans continue to believe in the American dream, but current differences in educational opportunities make it inaccessible for many (Brandt & Clare, 2018). Thus, the recent increased focus on the racial achievement gap can lead to better outcomes for African Americans and other racial minorities amid widening economic inequalities.
Notably, some scholars claim that growth in the achievement gap discourse is harmful to African Americans and other racial minorities by perpetuating negative stereotypes. Teachers and the public have provided several explanations for the racial achievement gap, some of which stereotypically blame minority students and their families for the perceived underachievement. For example, some have associated African Americans with a culture of low expectations and one that does not value education. Quinn (2020) conducted three experimental studies on the effect of exposure to achievement gap news on viewers’ stereotypical explanations and inequality prioritization. The researcher found that exposure to racialized achievement gap news in mainstream media might lead to perceptions that African American students are less competent than whites (Quinn, 2020). Deficit-based explanations of the achievement gap shift focus away from potential social, economic, and structural causes such as the underfunding of public schools in disadvantaged neighborhoods. Therefore, mainstream news media should frame racial achievement gap stories in a manner that increases awareness and empathy and stimulates action without perpetuating harmful stereotypes.
Socioeconomic disparities between whites and people of color are primary explanations for the achievement gap. This hypothesis is supported by Hung et al. (2019), who studied the causes of the achievement gap using a sample of students in grades 3-8 from 2,868 school districts across the US. Their analysis strongly associated economic inequality and educational attainment of adults in the household with the Black/White student achievement gap (Hung et al., 2019). White parents typically have higher incomes and educational attainment than parents of color. Family socioeconomic resources are strong predictors of students’ educational outcomes since parents with higher incomes and education can provide more academic opportunities for their children. The link between racial socioeconomic disparities and students’ educational outcomes suggests that the achievement gap is broader in US states with profound economic inequalities. This is supported by Hung et al.’s (2019) finding that racial achievement gaps in mathematics and reading were most prominent in the South and Southwest US. Southern US states have a history of legal slavery and segregation of African Americans, which continue to influence racial differences in educational and employment opportunities. Thus, improving the socioeconomic conditions where people of color live and attend school is critical to addressing the achievement gap.
Factors related to the school environment, such as per-student expenditure, enrollment, and student-teacher ratio, may also explain the achievement gap. Students of color are more likely to attend racially segregated public schools. Attending segregated schools impacts academic performance negatively, and students of color are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of segregation (Merolla & Jackson, 2019). Similarly, Hung et al. (2019) found a strong association between racial segregation and the achievement gap. When students of color attend segregated schools, they are likely to learn in environments with fewer resources compared to their white counterparts. However, Hung et al. (2019) found a weak association between school characteristics, such as per-student expenditure and school enrollment size, and the achievement gap. Their study suggests that increasing per-pupil expenditure without improving the socioeconomic conditions outside the classroom does little to address the achievement gap. Therefore, additional studies are needed to understand the effect of school factors on students’ performance and the achievement gap.
Current evidence indicates that the system of structural racism in the US is the root cause of the achievement gap. In their literature review, Merolla and Jackson (2019) concluded that structural racism, which leads to racial differences in educational, housing, and employment opportunities, is the leading cause of the racial achievement gap. Hung et al. (2019) made similar conclusions, emphasizing the need for increased focus on societal barriers that limit opportunities for people of color. The election of President Obama in 2008 created hopes that the US would transition to a post-racial society where all Americans have equal opportunities regardless of skin color (Brandt & Clare, 2018). However, the US remains a racialized society, where one’s racial identity determines the opportunities available to them and their life experiences. Acknowledging systemic racism and discrimination as the root causes of racial disparities in educational outcomes can shift focus to broader interventions that radically transform society and remove barriers that disadvantage people of color. Thus, current programs, such as public funding for early childhood education, may not have long-term benefits unless racialized institutions, systems, and processes that limit opportunities for people of color are dismantled.
In conclusion, the achievement gap remains a significant social problem in the US. While several causes of the achievement gap have been identified, the system of structural racism in the US remains prominent by creating racial differences in opportunities. Closing the achievement gap requires reforms that radically transform US society and remove barriers for people of color. Therefore, education reforms, such as public funding for early childhood education, should be combined with policies that improve educational, employment, and housing opportunities for African Americans and other racial minorities.
References
Brandt, J., & Clare, C. E. (2018). An introduction to popular culture in the US. Bloomsbury Academic.
Coe, K., & Kuttner, P. J. (2018). Education coverage in television news: A typology and analysis of 35 years of topics. AERA Open, 4(1), 233285841775169. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858417751694
Hung, M., Smith, W. A., Voss, M. W., Franklin, J. D., Gu, Y., & Bounsanga, J. (2019). Exploring student achievement gaps in school districts across the United States. Education and Urban Society, 52(2), 175–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124519833442
Merolla, D. M., & Jackson, O. (2019). Structural racism as the fundamental cause of the academic achievement gap. Sociology Compass, 13(6), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12696
Quinn, D. M. (2020). Experimental effects of “achievement gap” news reporting on viewers’ racial stereotypes, inequality explanations, and inequality prioritization. Educational Researcher, 49(7), 482–492. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189×20932469
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