Sociological advancements in recent times have provided women with increased liberty in making choices such as to have a child or not. Traditionally, the idea of a woman remaining child-free seemed taboo, shunned by society. The rise in liberalism heralded increased acceptance of behavior and choices that were somewhat unconventional. Minority groups such as African Americans, Hispanics, women, and members of the LGBTQ community have had increased rights in recent history. Traditionally, only barren women could remain childless; most of the women with the ability to get pregnant and give birth would eventually get children.
Additionally, women who wanted children but were barren could use surrogates or adopt. Children were seen as beings who were complete women, with childless women being frowned upon. With a noticeable change in societal norms, the stigma associated with childless women has reduced over time. Nowadays, even women with the biological ability to get children are choosing to remain child-free. The decision to remain child-free is present among women from various racial-ethnic backgrounds, including African Americans, Hispanics, and Caucasians. However, multiple factors present barriers that influence the decision among women to remain child-free; these include cultural, socioeconomic, and healthcare factors.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND INITIAL RESEARCH
Historical Context
Cultural norms, belief systems, and socioeconomic disparities in society have had a significant influence on reproductive decision-making among Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic women. Gender-based inequalities have traditionally impacted access to healthcare in general and reproductive healthcare in particular among women in the United States. Additionally, racial prejudice and economic inequality in the U.S. have further impacted access to care by African American and Hispanic women. Villatoro et al. (2018:3) have made significant contributions to the field of research on how cultural norms and socioeconomic disparities continue to impact women in the United States. The authors have examined ways in which gender identity, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic backgrounds are intertwined in the lives of women, particularly in their reproductive choices. Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic women have all been impacted by expected gender roles and associated effects on access to education, healthcare services, and employment (Huertas-Zurriaga, 2022). Hispanic and African American women are further disadvantaged due to their status as a racial-ethnic minority.
Overview of Initial Researchers and their Motivations
Since the early-mid 20th century, researchers have probed complexities associated with factors that drive women to make various choices. Sociological research has explored how gendered expectations, socioeconomic conditions, racial-ethnic identities, and discrimination have impacted reproductive decisions among women. Research on how individuals and groups make choices has gradually continued and progressed to date. In their study, Guzzo and Hayford (2020:119) explored how distinctive cultural models of motherhood have impacted views on family and fertility among women from various racial-ethnic groups. According to Verniers (2020:108), power structures are really at the center of it all, hidden in many areas ranging from things like socioeconomic inequalities to limited access to reproductive healthcare and family planning resources for women. Guzzo and Hayford (2020:132) and Verniers (2020:113) suggest utilizing a comprehensive method to identify motivations behind reproductive intentions concerning gender, racial-ethnic identity, and socioeconomic status. Sociological researchers continue broadening research on all women, facilitating appreciation of the differences in backgrounds and perspectives on African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women; hence, they understand the multifaceted nature of reproductive decision-making.
Early Concerns Regarding Gender, Cultural, and Socioeconomic Influences on Reproductive Choices
Research studies show that reproductive decisions by African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women have been traditionally influenced by cultural and socioeconomic factors such as gender roles, societal expectations, resource accessibility, and decision-making power. Prather et al. (2016:665) assessed the process of breaking conventional gender norms to address the issue of stigmatization against childless women. The traditional expectation is that women grow up to form families, becoming wives and mothers. Additionally, the researchers examined opinions about elements like racial and ethnic norms supporting or undermining conceptions of motherhood. Challenges with the social assistance system, the economy, and the availability of healthcare services influence women’s decisions to become mothers. Prather et al. (2016:665) used qualitative research techniques, such as in-person case studies and interviews, to examine the complexity surrounding reproductive decisions made by various individuals. Case studies and interviews provide primary information that aids an accurate analysis of reproductive decision-making issues.
CULTURAL BARRIERS
Cultural barriers influence the decision of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women to remain child-free. Traditionally, Hispanic, African American, and Caucasian cultures hold high reverence for the identity and practice of motherhood. Women with children have been regarded by society as being on a higher social ladder compared to barren children (Guzzo & Hayford 2020, p. 122; Neal & Neal, 2022). In African American and Hispanic cultures, teachings on becoming good mothers and wives were common in traditional initiation practices. Caucasian families and mothers have also educated their daughters on effectively playing the roles of wives and mothers. These cultural practices in various communities indicate the social expectations and identities placed upon their women. Cultural factors pressure women to adhere to conventional gender roles, such as becoming wives and mothers (Hakim 2018: Verniers 2020:108). In close-knit communities, women are provided with insufficient liberty in making personal reproductive decisions. Cultures compel these women to transition through all recognized rites, which include birth, initiation, and marriage. Cultural responsibility requires women to form families, become mothers, and continue their ancestries (Guzzo & Hayford 2020:134, Rybinska & Morgan 2018:1572). As such, women have been traditionally provided with limited choices on whether to form families and have children. However, the rise in feminism has accorded women with increased liberty to make decisions regarding their sexuality, intention for marriage, and intention to have children.
Childbirth norms and standards in the African American culture have traditionally shaped attitudes toward childbearing among women. Cultural and fertility beliefs in the community signify the reverence for motherhood and disdain for childlessness (Prieto et al., 2022, p. 245). Wells (2023) further ascertains this position through his research, which indicates the presence of stigma associated with infertility within the African American community. In addition to signifying how cultural norms impact infertility, the associated stigma also prevents barren women from seeking appropriate healthcare services. The African American culture and the wider society regard the family as the fundamental social and cultural unity, hence showing regard for reproduction and motherhood as the natural order of things (Huertas-Zurriaga, 2022). Women who fail to attain motherhood continue to be stigmatized within the African American community.
Similarly, Hispanic communities have also demonstrated sociocultural expectations that place significant pressure on women to adhere to conventional gender norms (Prather et al., 2016, p. 665). Caucasian communities have also put similar expectations on their women. In all these cultures, women are culturally regarded as being of increased importance when they become mothers. Women who are childless find it impossible to rise to positions of power or influence within their communities.
Cultural beliefs on contraception further illustrate the influence of these beliefs on the decisions of women to become mothers. African American communities have demonstrated poor attitudes and utilization of contraception (Verniers, 2020, p. 118). Poor use of contraception is partially responsible for an increased number of pregnancies and single-parenthood in the community. Cultural stigmatization of infertility has been the basis for women failing to adequately use existing family planning options, resulting in unexpected pregnancies (Nugin Dean, 2023; Guzzo & Hayford, 2020, p. 132). These cultural conceptions of parenthood and fertility ultimately influence the planning and decisions made by African American women. Women are likely to enter into motherhood for the sole reason of escaping the stigma associated with barrenness. As such, these women are influenced to make decisions that go against their intentions.
Despite the wider society’s culture placing barriers to women intending to be child-free, minority women are most affected by these barriers. Women from minority communities, such as African Americans and Hispanics, are most affected (Neal & Neal, 2024). The presence of closely-knit communities indicates that women from these communities are closely judged on potential decisions to remain childless. Subsequently, cultural pressure compels women who would have remained childless to become mothers (Nugin-Dean, 2023; Rich et al., 2021). Conventional expectations of women in these communities require women to form families and become wives and husbands. A decision to remain childless results in humiliation and potential discrimination against women who choose to take the path. Cultural beliefs and practices continue to influence pro-creative decision-making processes in African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian communities, subsequently altering the reproductive attitudes among women (Verniers, 2020, p. 123; Neal & Neal, 2022). Lack of cultural sensitization continues to reinforce the stigma associated with infertility, further pushing who would have chosen to become childfree to becoming mothers.
SOCIOECONOMIC BARRIERS
Socioeconomic factors represent the next set of barriers impacting the decision of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women to remain childless. Socioeconomic status (SES) affects the reproductive choices made by women in these communities. Huertas-Zurriaga (2022) ascertains the impact of socioeconomic barriers on women’s decision to remain childless. Society itself has placed gender-specific expectations on women, expecting them to form families and become wives. Additionally, poor socioeconomic status is directly correlated to a lack of access to information and resources on birth control (Prather et al., 2016, p. 670). Despite intentions to remain childless, lack of adequate awareness and access to contraceptive services results in women becoming mothers. Poor access to contraception results in unexpected pregnancies, which ultimately pushes women to motherhood.
Poor socioeconomic status is associated with low access to healthcare, education, and employment, with women being disproportionately affected compared to men. Subsequently, these differences predispose women from the three racial demographics to engage in unprotected sex and fail to follow through with their intentions to remain childless (Villatoro et al., 2018, p. 13). African American. Hispanic and Caucasian women are essentially robbed of the opportunity and right to choose whether to remain childless or otherwise. Young people growing up in poverty and slum conditions are highly susceptible to engaging in unprotected sex due to the commercialization of sex or poor access to available contraceptives (Verniers, 2020, p. 113). These factors ultimately result in high cases of unexpected pregnancies within these communities. Young women have children even before they are aware that they can decide whether to have children or remain childless.
Additionally, women with low socioeconomic status are likely to experience challenges in accessing abortion services, especially with the recent reversal of Roe versus Wade. The reversal of the court judgment resulted in individual states having the liberty to make laws concerning the legality of abortion (Neal & Neal, 2024). Subsequently, nearly half of the states in the United States have instituted, or are in the process of instituting, restrictions against access to abortion services. Women who are seeking abortion services in these states are forced to travel long distances to other states where the healthcare service is still legal. Lack of adequate financial resources inhibits the ability of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women from traveling these distances to access much-needed services (Huertas-Zurriaga, 2022; Rybinska & Morgan, 2018, p. 1579).
Additionally, the outlawing of these services in nearly half of the states is bound to impact the cost of the services in states where abortion is still legal and accessible without many restrictions. Subsequently, women with low socioeconomic status find it increasingly hard to access safe abortion services. African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic women in states that have outlawed abortion are left with two options: accessing unsafe abortion services or deciding to keep their pregnancies (Neal & Neal, 2024). Unsafe abortion services may result in health complications or death, hence an unfeasible option. Consequently, women with low SES are, in a way, compelled to have children, even if they had earlier decided to remain child-free (Verniers, 2020, p. 117). Access to reproductive healthcare services such as contraception and abortion remains a significant issue impacting the decision of women to remain childless.
Social support networks are essential for women following through with their decisions to remain child-free. Humans are social beings, meaning people need interactions, especially with like-minded people. Socially formed gender norms require women to form families by becoming wives and mothers (Clarke et al., 2020, p. 977; Villatoro et al., 2018, p. 13). A minor proportion of women choose to remain child-free despite having the ability to get pregnant and give birth. Subsequently, women who choose this path need better social support networks where they can interact and provide each other with resources to support their decisions. Instead, African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic women who have decided to remain primarily childfree interact with social circles comprising women who have decided to have children (Clarke et al., 2020, p. 983). Consistent interaction with people who have taken a different path potentially influences these women to alter their decisions. The impact of social support systems can be viewed in societies with high prevalence rates of early marriages and adolescent pregnancies. By interacting with peers who are already married or pregnant, other girls in these communities also often end up having similar predicaments. This trend is evident among African American women compared to their Hispanic and Caucasian counterparts. Poor social support concerning such issues prevents a barrier against women’s decision to remain child-free.
The continued lack of social support concerning women making decisions to remain child-free is a reflection of people and a society that has failed to embrace reproductive healthcare practices as a result of social learning and influence. The existence of robust and uniform cliques among women who have chosen to remain child-free is crucial for overcoming gender-specific roles. These social support groups potentially provide members with resources and an opportunity to talk about their decisions, assisting each other in adopting the unconventional decision to remain child-free (Clarke et al., 2020, p. 982). Social networks also enable the exchange of information and allow users to locate and access data about reproductive Health. Subsequently, these women gain awareness and courage to make tough decisions about family planning, contraception, and pregnancy care. Social variables continue to impact how women make reproductive decisions, ultimately affecting the ability to follow through with women’s decisions to remain child-free.
Women from a high socioeconomic status who have decided to remain child-free are more likely to interact with similar-minded women in their circles. In contrast, these interactions are infrequent among women from low socioeconomic status, signifying how SES presents a barrier influencing the decision of these women to remain child-free (Verniers, 2020, p. 123). Instead of interacting with similar-minded women, low- and middle-class women often interact with mothers in their social networks. Socially formed gender roles result in women within these social circles being advised to give birth, potentially impacting their decisions to remain child-free. Community social norms and the human tendency to imitate friends and peer groups may influence women’s decisions to stay child-free.
Societally ingrained gender-specific roles have resulted in gender inequality, with women being highly disadvantaged. Men are expected to advance in their careers, while women, despite recent advances, are still primarily viewed as family-makers. Subsequently, while mildly frowned upon, Hispanic, Caucasian, and African American men who decide to remain child-free are provided with more tolerance compared to their female counterparts who make similar decisions (Prieto et al., 2022, p. 252). Additionally, men are likely to meet with peers who have made similar decisions, providing social support to each other. Also, unexpected pregnancies involving both men and women who have chosen to remain child-free disproportionately impact women, who are the ones who often have to dedicate time to nurturing (Hakim, 2018). The lack of social support for women who have made the decision is a reflection of continuing gender inequality impacting women. Like men, women require support from family, friends, and community groups in their choices (Clarke et al., 2020, p. 982). These social networks encourage the development and dissemination of knowledge-based reproductive agendas among women who have chosen to remain child-free. Additionally, these networks are essential in providing women with the confidence and compassion to make choices that align with their desires and core values (Neal & Neal, 2024). Lack of social support networks and the associated stigma with women who decide to remain childfree potentially results in making choices that contradict these women’s desires.
Economic concerns have a significant effect on the decision to remain childless. Conversely, economic factors are a primary motivation for women to become childless. African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women who choose to remain childless indicate a preference for personal accomplishments over parenthood (Rich et al., 2021). Insufficient personal funds and psychological job insecurity suggest these women have yet to achieve their accomplishments. Additionally, these factors discourage women from becoming mothers, as they fear that they would be unable to cater to the needs of their children sufficiently. Lack of education and poor income generation are reoccurring characteristics of African American and Hispanic women (Huertas-Zurriaga, 2022). These women face discrimination on two fronts: their gender identities and racial-ethnic backgrounds. Caucasian women are also disproportionately disadvantaged in the job market compared to their male counterparts (Neal & Neal, 2022). Caucasian males occupy most of the available top job positions. Additionally, if they perform similar jobs with similar responsibilities, males are likely to earn higher wages than females.
Childbirth significantly impacts career progression in women. Systemic gender discrimination has resulted in women playing second fiddle in the job market. Childbirth often forces women to leave their jobs for around six months, a period which usually results in loss of employment or loss of responsibilities, which signifies gradual phasing out of the female employees (Villatoro et al. 2018: 3). Subsequently, personal accomplishments through maintaining their jobs and getting promotions is one of the main factors which motivate women to remain childfree. Delayed parenthood among women tends to positively correlate with the education and income levels of women (Prieto et al., 2022, p. 242). As such, career women are more likely to decide to remain child-free. However, improved job security and increased financial options will likely influence women who choose to be childless to change their decisions and pursue parenthood. Otherwise, economic challenges in access to adequate reproductive care may continue, resulting in unexpected differences that force women into motherhood. Working-class women with poor wages and who have decided to remain child-free may face difficulties in accessing adequate reproductive care in the form of contraceptives.
HEALTHCARE BARRIERS
Poor access to healthcare services presents another barrier that influences the decision by African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women to remain child-free. Women from minority racial-ethnic groups have the most significant disparities in access to affordable family planning and reproductive healthcare services. Generally, women with low SES will also experience more critical challenges in accessing reproductive healthcare. Wells (2023) asserts that education, social status, and cultural beliefs significantly affect access to healthcare services. Lack of education often translates to poor health literacy and poor socioeconomic status. Lack of health literacy inhibits awareness about existing reproductive health services, meaning women from these communities fail to utilize available healthcare services and resources adequately (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 59; Prather et al., 2016, p. 668). Poor socioeconomic status further amplifies this problem, with women who have high health literacy still being unable to access the existing services and resources. Inadequate access to contraception and abortion services is an example of how, even with high health literacy, other factors impact access to vital healthcare services. Subsequently, women experience unexpected pregnancies, including women who would have made decisions to remain child-free.
Low socioeconomic status impacts access to healthcare services as women from all three racial-ethnic groups experience inadequate insurance coverage, poor access to cheap and affordable treatment, and unavailability of reproductive health services. These challenges are more pronounced among African American and Hispanic women than their Caucasian counterparts (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 61). Long-existing healthcare disparities have progressively denied Hispanic and African American women access to healthcare services, including reproductive healthcare. A profit-driven system in the healthcare industry further exacerbates the challenges faced by these women in accessing reproductive healthcare. A profit-driven system denies citizens with poor economic status access to reproductive care. Women from underprivileged backgrounds must make do with limited financial resources, hence having access to only the cheapest healthcare services (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 57). For instance, these women may access health literacy resources but, due to their means, fail to use these existing resources. Subsequently, these women are increasingly predisposed to unexpected pregnancies, which negate the decision to remain child-free. Eventual unintentional pregnancies among these women further exacerbate the multifaceted nature of poor access to family planning and reproductive health services.
As Wells (2023) asserted, cultural factors also play a significant role in access to healthcare services. Indigenous communities have traditionally shown a preference for traditional forms of treatment. Additionally, existing racial and ethnic disparities have resulted in low confidence in the healthcare system by some cultures. The language barrier is one of the factors that contribute to disparities in healthcare access and subsequent loss of confidence in the existing healthcare system. Hispanic women are most affected by the cultural implications on healthcare access. Bilingualism and lack of proficiency in English continue to pose challenges to access to healthcare among Hispanic women (Prieto et al., 2022, p. 249; Rybinska & Morgan, 2018, p. 1577). Healthcare facilities in the United States, including those in the South, mainly provide services using the English language. Physicians, counselors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals mostly communicate in English.
Additionally, healthcare information resources in media and through resources such as leaflets are primarily in English. This language barrier signifies that Hispanic women are culturally disadvantaged concerning access to healthcare services, including reproductive health services (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 62). As such, women in these communities who decide to remain child-free face great hindrances in actualizing their decisions. In addition to language barriers and their effect on access to healthcare, Hispanic women are also more likely to show a preference for traditional forms of healing compared to their African American and Caucasian counterparts (Prieto et al., 2022, p. 245). Subsequently, Hispanic women are likely to have low health literacy and hence need to adequately utilize existing healthcare resources to support decisions on remaining child-free.
The lack of social support networks in the healthcare sector presents another challenge against African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian women’s decisions to remain child-free. A culture that has placed gender-specific expectations on women has also resulted in a lack of social support for women who choose to remain child-free. Social support networks assist women in accessing reproductive healthcare resources (Clarke et al., 2020, p. 982; Neal & Neal, 2022). Consequently, the lack of these support systems inhibits access to sufficient funding and healthcare resources. Access to natal services often mirrors access to reproductive health services. Poor access to pre-natal and post-natal signifies a resulting poor access to reproductive healthcare services such as contraception and abortion. Women from minority racial-ethnic groups such as African Americans and Hispanics experience poor social support in terms of healthcare services from nurses, midwives, and other healthcare professionals (Rich et al., 2021). Subsequently, the women in these communities who have made decisions to remain child-free face challenges in access to contraception.
SYNTHESIS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The research studies reviewed above indicate how healthcare, socioeconomic, and cultural factors continue to impact decisions by Caucasian, African American, and Caucasian women to remain child-free. Critical factors include cultural and traditional acceptability, education level, health literacy, and socioeconomic status. These factors influence decision-making and following through with intentions to remain child-free (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 62). This review has shown how fundamental components such as socioeconomic position, cultural norms, and healthcare significantly influence the decisions of women to remain child-free or form families by becoming mothers. Future directions ought to prioritize the provision of sufficient support and healthcare services to Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic women who choose to remain childless, regardless of their socioeconomic status and cultural backgrounds (Rich et al., 2021; Townsend, 2020). In addressing socioeconomic factors that impact women’s decisions to remain child-free, interventions are necessary to improve women’s access to education, health literacy, healthcare access, and income generation (Guzzo & Hayford, 2020, p. 123). Disparities in availability and access to various resources form the basis for barriers against women’s decisions to remain child-free.
IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS IN CURRENT RESEARCH AND AREAS FOR FUTURE EXPLORATION
The literature review above draws attention to concerns about the gender, cultural, and socioeconomic disparities in African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic women’s reproductive decision-making. The results of women’s choices on parenthood and fertility will undoubtedly be discussed in this context, influenced by cultural beliefs, socioeconomic status, and social support systems. Acknowledging the importance of these intricate elements is necessary to plan population-wide interventions and programs that promote reproductive justice and equality in public Health. Healthcare professionals, legislators, and researchers can all help create a system that will guarantee that everyone, regardless of race or background, has equal access to reproductive healthcare services that are tailored to meet their specific needs by understanding and addressing the unique issues that minorities, especially women, face in this field.
One of the areas of future exploration is the effect of how industrialization has influenced reproductive decision-making among Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic women. Another potential area of research is how social support networks continue to impact reproductive decisions, either mitigating or exacerbating cultural and financial barriers to women’s access to reproductive healthcare (Jones, 2021). Future studies, however, must concentrate not only on individual reproductive decision-making but also on systemic variables such as institutional racism and healthcare policy and their effects on decision-making. Adequate provision of inclusive and equitable reproductive health care necessitates acknowledging the unique challenges faced by all women.
Finally, it would be crucial to do a longitudinal study assessing the decision-making trajectory over the life cycle, environmental variables, and culture. The proposed research aims to determine the decision-making trajectory over the life cycle. The study will contribute to existing literature and understanding of reproductive decision-making through analysis of the points in the lifecycle where women are likely to divert from their decisions regarding remaining childless. Additionally, the effects of culture, socioeconomic status, and healthcare access will be examined concerning the choice to distract from the decision to remain childless. In the research study, the participants must document whether they ever decided to remain child-free and whether they have maintained the decision. Additionally, the research will inquire about the age at which a diversion was made and the reasons for the same.
References
Clarke, S., McKenzie, H., Lamaro Haintz, G. & Graham, M. (2020). Social support and women’s reproductive decision making: Testing emergent fit of “optimizing support for the preservation of self.” Qualitative Health Research, 30(7), 975–987.
Galloway, C.T., Duffy, J.L., Dixon, R.P. and Fuller, T.R., (2017). Exploring African-American Clarke and Latino teens’ perceptions of contraception and access to reproductive health care services. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(3), pp.S57-S62.
Guzzo, K.B. and Hayford, S.R., 2020. Pathways to parenthood in social and family contexts: Decade in review, 2020. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), pp.117-144.
Hakim, C., (2018). Models of the family in modern societies: Ideals and realities. Routledge.
Huertas-Zurriaga, A., Palmieri, P.A., Aguayo-Gonzalez, M.P., Dominguez-Cancino, K.A., Casanovas-Cuellar, C., Linden, K.L.V., Cesario, S.K., Edwards, J.E. and Leyva-Moral, J.M., 2022. Reproductive decision-making of Black women living with HIV: A systematic review. Women’s Health, 18, p.17455057221090827.
Neal, Z.P., Neal, J.W., (2022). Prevalence, age of decision, and interpersonal warmth judgments of childfree adults. Sci Rep 12, 11907.
Neal, J. W., & Neal, Z. P. (2024). Prevalence of childfree adults before and after Dobbs v Jackson in Michigan (USA). PloS one, 19(1), e0294459.
Nugin-Dean, A.L., (2023). African American Women and the Impact of Infertility on Family Planning (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University).
Prather, C., Fuller, T.R., Marshall, K.J. and Jeffries IV, W.L., (2016). The impact of racism on the sexual and reproductive Health of African American women. Journal of Women’s Health, 25(7), 664–671.
Prieto, F., Cabrera, N.J., Alonso, A. and Ghosh, R., 2022. Cultural and sociopolitical influences on African American and Latino fathers. Handbook of the Psychology of Fatherhood, pp.239-260.
Rich, S., Haintz, G.L., McKenzie, H. and Graham, M., 2021. Factors that Shape Women’s Reproductive Decision-Making: A Scoping Review. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 11(2).
Rybińska, A., & Morgan, S. P. 2019. Childless Expectations and Childlessness Over the Life Course. Social forces; a scientific medium of social study and interpretation, 97(4), 1571–1602.
Townsend, D.N., (2020). Understanding African American Marital Experiences: Stressors, Resources and Couple Interactions (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee State University).
Verniers, C., (l2020. Behind the maternal wall: The hidden backlash toward childfree working women. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 4(3), pp.107-124.
Villatoro, A.P., Mays, V.M., Ponce, N. & Aneshensel, C.S. (2018). Perceived need for mental health care: The intersection of race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Society and Mental Health, 8(1), 1–24.
Wells, A., (2023). A Qualitative Descriptive Study Exploring Infertility Help-Seeking Among African American Women (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Alabama at Birmingham.
write