Criminological Theories
Situational crime prevention theory
Introduction
The initial thought of the situational crime prevention approach is dated back to the 1970s (Freilich, Gruenewald, & Mandala, 2019). When the British criminological department was mandated to research crime control measures. The department concluded that the crime rate in a particular setting could be associated with the opportunities, incentives, and risks associated with the crime. The research further found that crime problems concentrated in a non-proportional manner in some correctional facilities (Freilich et al., 2019). This theory was further influenced by two ideas from the US on the defensible space theory and the problem-oriented policing approach.
Main tenets
Situational crime prevention theory (SCP) is based on the insight that it seeks to reduce crime opportunities by reducing crime opportunities and the risks associated with it as well as reducing the rewards of a particular crime (Freilich et al., 2019). It involves several critical steps built on a theoretical framework in seeking how, when and where crime occurs. Upon analyzing the distribution of specific crime activity and its patterns, situational crime prevention identifies the risk factors and implements the necessary solutions to curb the crime (Freilich et al., 2019). The situational crime prevention theory is different from other crime theories in that it seeks to prevent crimes by focusing on the settings or environments where these crimes occur rather than punishing the offenders. It seeks to address the crime issue by reducing the opportunities for malicious activities rather than identifying the root cause of these problems. This approach is consistent with public science’s epidemiological approach (Freilich et al., 2019).
Main Contributors
Ron Clarke, the founder of SCP, became thoroughly interested in situational opportunities, factors, and crime prevention strategies during his doctorate studies (Freilich et al., 2019). After that, the theories were applied in the US and the British governments.
Policy implications
This theory continues to be of impact on criminology departments across the globe. It is an insightful and potential theory in crime prevention in that it deprives the crime doers of opportunities and increases the risks realized from a particular criminal activity. I believe this theory is the most potential in crime prevention.
Defensible Space Theory
Introduction
The defensible space theory, as put forward by city planner and architect Oscar Newman, is based on the idea of neighborhood safety and crime prevention (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022). He argues that environmental designs and settings are critical in influencing criminal activities. This theory developed in the early 1970s, and he wrote a book on defensible space in 1972. In his book, he claims that high crime rate existed in New York housing projects than in low-rise complexes (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022). He concluded that this turn of events was influenced by the fact that people living in the neighborhood felt no responsibility to care for and protect an area occupied by so many people. Throughout his study, Newman explained his ideas on crime prevention, public health, and social control regarding community structural design (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022).
Main Tenets
As clearly outlined in Newman’s book on design guidelines for creating defensible space, structural and architectural design plays a critical role in the security of a particular place (Hatipoglu, & Alsavada, 2022). He goes further to claim that a housing development is only defensible if the inhabitants are of the intention to adopt their role, which is highly influenced by a good design. He describes defensible space as a sociophysical event as physical elements and society are part and pastels of a defensible space. The theory further argues that the area becomes much safer when individuals feel a sense of responsibility and ownership for a particular piece of the community (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022). Newman says that the criminal is isolated because his turf is removed when an area is cared for by a responsible party. A person with the intention of committing a crime and senses a watchful community may not commit the crime. The main idea is that criminal activities can be controlled by the environmental setting (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022).
Authors
Newman Oscar informed the defensible space theory in his book in 1972. His concept contained a set of urban design principles and a theory of crime and became popular during the 1970 era due to the rise of urban crime and continued to rise over the years (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022).
Policy implications
This theory asserts that environmental or housing structures can aid criminal activities. It claims that people who feel part of the community tend to protect their community better (Hatipoglu & Alsavada, 2022). This is quite a weak theory in preventing crime because it does not propose the standard measure of an excellent environmental setting. Furthermore, a person who intends to commit a crime will do it irrespective of the feeling of responsibility. I feel this theory lacks a practical point of view.
Law Enforcement Theories
The Classical Theory
Introduction
The Classical Theory is developed on the insight that individuals are free to make their own decisions and deliberately choose to get involved in criminal activities (Pipa, & Brandenburg, 2019). Every criminal calculates the risk involved in a particular crime and its reward. If the risk is relatively high then the reward must be high enough to warrant breaking the law. The law also has its line of approach. However severe the offense, the punishment must bear the same weight. Ideas constructed by the theorists set everyone on an equal pedestal, and offenders would receive fair treatment and appropriate punishment and be elected to due process (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019). Ideas constructed by the theorists set everyone on an equal pedestal, and offenders would receive fair treatment and appropriate punishment and be elected to due process. Ideas constructed by the theorists set everyone on an equal pedestal, and offenders would receive fair treatment and appropriate punishment and be elected to due process (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019).
Main tenets
This theory created a sovereign nation, allowing the government to create punishable laws. It also gave insight that people should not be restricted in their actions but instead allowed to make their own decisions (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019). It also brought the issue of presumption of innocence until proven guilty in that throughout the court procedures; all parties should be given the needed security. Each law should be considered before rendering any punishment. The punishment should not intend to Should be set an example or reform the offender. The offender should be viewed as equal to others and have the chance to weigh the consequences of committing a crime (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019).
Main contributors
Cesare Bonesana Marchese di Beccaria was the author and pioneer of Classical Theory (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019). Beccaria is tabbed with several ideas during this period that helped revolutionize policing as well as writing a book that helped turn things around called On Crimes and Punishment. His primary motivator was to reform the justice system, particularly the France regime and Paris police (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019). The other two significant contributors were Jeremy Bentham and John Howard.
Policy Implications
The implications of the Classical Theory have led to several impactful improvements to our justice system (Pipa & Brandenburg, 2019). It has offered an opportunity for the fair treatment of individuals during the trial process in that they are presumed innocent until proven guilty. I feel this theory is the most potential one in law enforcement practices.
Spiritualism
Introduction
The main significance of this theory is its insight that people are either good or bad. It was practiced during the middle ages and ancient times by Egyptians and Greeks (Long, 2019). Individuals who committed crimes were often seen as devils or possessed by evil spirits. The theory argues that the devil was the reason for committing a crime and that God was the only one who could render an individual innocent. God was the ultimate deciding factor for punishment and wrongdoing. The ideals backing this are the punishments they hold for offenders, such as the trial by battle. It was said that the innocent would survive, and the guilty would be the ones to suffer and die (Long, 2019).
Main tenets
This theory argues that people commit crimes out of possession by the evil spirit and not the holy spirit (Long, 2019). The criminals were provoked by the devil and not by their free will. On the other hand, God was the author of punishment, and only he could render a person guilty or innocent. The process of identifying whether an individual was innocent or not was basically through swearing in the name of Jesus and engaging in fights. If one lost, one would be declared evil (Long, 2019). This approach had its shortcomings. If one were a warrior and criminal, they would never get away with it as they would always win these battles.
Main contributors
Other than the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Athenians, there were no contributors/authors listed within the book to tab the development of Spiritualism, too(Long, 2019). The Athenians did, however, have their counsel and vote as a whole to find a plan of action.
Policy Implications
Spiritualism has impacted the ways our criminal justice system operates. I strongly view this theory as an escape route for criminals who constantly argue that the evil spirit influenced them when committing the crime, which is rather not fitting. People have a free will, and I feel they should be held responsible for those actions irrespective of who influenced them.
Punishment Theories
Deterrence theory
Introduction
The deterrence theory is based on the insight that threats and forceful implications on some party may cause another party to refrain from doing a particular action (Paternoster, 2018). This theory was much practiced as a military strategy during the cold war in using nuclear weapons. It is related to mutually assured destruction, which models the right way to launch nuclear attacks and devastate both parties. The main aim of this Deterrence is that it revolves around how to effectively scare military action or nuclear attack on the insight that it is costly to deter (Paternoster, 2018).
Main Tenets
Deterrence theorists have consistently argued that deterrence success is more likely if a defending state’s deterrent threat is credible to an attacking state (Paternoster, 2018). They further outline that a threat is considered credible if the defending state possesses the military capabilities to inflict substantial costs on an attacking state in an armed conflict and the attacking state believes that the defending state is resolved to use its available military forces. It goes on to explain the four critical factors for consideration under rational deterrence theory: the interests at stake, signaling and bargaining power, reputations for resolve and the military balance (Paternoster, 2018).
Main Contributors
Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy benthen are the key authors of the deterrence theory. It was developed in the 18th century and continues to develop over the years (Paternoster, 2018).
Policy implications
This theory has had significant input in the criminal justice system in its input in fighting crime and punishment of offenders. I feel this theory is insightful in that it offers preventive measures. Lawbreakers should first be prevented from committing those crimes before being convicted.
Reformative Theory
Introduction
The reformative theory implicates an undesirable or unpleasant outcome on an individual or a group of individuals to counter an effect of Deterrence from that particular group (Adnan, Bhatti, & Hassan, 2022). This form of punishment aims at providing reformative opportunities to the offenders.
Main tenets
The reformative theory is based on the insight that punishment should be taken as a curative rather than a deterrent act (Adnan et al., 2022). This theory takes crime as a disease that should be cured through the medicine and the process of reformation rather than killing the offender. It offers an opportunity to rethink the act of crime rather than the hurry to punish the offenders (Adnan et al., 2022).
Policy implications
I strongly feel that this theory has been over-emphasized in that the offenders have a leeway to commit a crime in the hope that they will only be placed under reformative programs. This theory should not be practiced at all, and people should be made to regret their actions to prevent other individuals with similar thoughts from engaging in crime. This theory offers offenders a reason to commit a crime, as the punishment will not affect them.
References
Freilich, J. D., Gruenewald, J., & Mandala, M. (2019). Situational crime prevention and terrorism: An assessment of 10 years of research. Criminal justice policy review, 30(9), 1283-1311. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0887403418805142
Hatipoglu, H. K., & Alsavada, M. O. (2022). The reflection of Newman’s defensible space theory on Turkey’s neighbourhoods: typomorphological analysis of safe-space within an analytical framework. Open House International, (ahead-of-print). https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/OHI-03-2022-0064/full/html
Pipa, A. V., & Brandenburg, R. (2019). The equivalent circuit approach for the electrical diagnostics of dielectric barrier discharges: The classical theory and recent developments. Atoms, 7(1), 14. https://www.mdpi.com/400530
Long, C. M. (2019). Spiritualism in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans: The Life and Times of Henry Louis Rey by Melissa Daggett. Nova Religio, 22(4), 107-109. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/737635/summary
Paternoster, R. (2018). Perceptual deterrence theory. In Deterrence, choice, and crime (pp. 81-106). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351112710-3/perceptual-deterrence-theory-raymond-paternoster
Adnan, S. M., Bhatti, S. H., & Hassan, T. A. (2022). A Critical Evaluation of the Theories of Punishment. Zakariya Journal of Social Science, 1(1), 38-43. https://journals.airsd.org/index.php/zjss/article/view/46
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