Introduction
The second half of the nineteenth century marked the start of the social work profession in the U.S. At first, compassionate initiatives were taken by religious institutions and societies to meet the needs of their poor members. Social work’s earliest interventions aimed to address people’s most fundamental needs. They thought it was crucial to help people in need by giving them emotional and material support and access to resources. To better the lives of individuals, families, and communities, what was once known as “helping” others eventually gave rise to the field of social work (Beckman, 2019). The social work profession has been instrumental in bringing about societal shifts that have helped to reduce inequality over time and across demographic groups. When social workers use their “helping” skills, they can alleviate many issues plaguing marginalized communities. They overcame the problem by assisting, advocating for, and swaying individuals, communities, politicians, and legislators. Social workers come in many forms, each with its primary responsibilities. A social worker may specialize in directly serving adults, children, or groups or in policy management, organization, or formulation.
This paper looks at the evolution of school social work (SSW) and its associated theories and research methods. In 1976, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) established the initial guidelines for school social work services, which covered three broad domains: professionalism attainment, administrative structure, and practice standards (Sweifach, 2017). Significant shifts occurred in social work in the three decades that followed the 1960s because social workers adapted to a shifting practice environment and strived to break free of ingrained norms (Sweifach, 2017). When the SSWAA was established, it marked the end of the New Skills Era. In these 40 years, new versions of school social work emerged, shifting the focus from individual cases to collaborative efforts and more considerable systemic changes. This paper will use research from various sources to allow the reader to make the relationships essential to grasp the evolution of social work over time.
Historical development of School social worker
The roots of school social work can be found in the early decades of the twentieth century. The discipline of social work surfaced in response to the social issues that surfaced during industrialization. Historically known as “visiting teachers,” these first-generation school social workers primarily addressed students’ social and emotional well-being. Simmons College and Harvard University joined forces in 1904 to found the Boston School of Social Workers. Simmons University pioneered the field of clinical social work education.
Beginning in 1908, students could enroll in the University of Chicago. In the early 20th century, universities offered social work degree programs (Simmons University, 2023). In 1919, the Council on Social Work Education counted seventeen schools as members. Fifteen itinerant educators discussed forming a national organization for mobile educators in 1916. (Simmons University, 2023). When this happened in 1917, it sparked the birth of the NASW. The group set out to improve the quality of social services provided in public and private schools, clarify the position of school social workers, and standardize their education and preparation.
New paradigms for school social work (SSW) emerged during the New Skills Era. The New Skills Era ended when the SSW Association of America was established. Traditional casework was just one of these models; others included group work and system interventions. And roughly 20 years into that period, P.L. When 94-142 was passed, school social workers’ responsibilities expanded to assist students with disabilities (SSWAA, n.d.). The demand for social workers in schools skyrocketed during this time. The NASW established the first standards for SSW services in 1976. These standards were broken down into three categories: competence attainment, management, and practice (Fisher, 2020). These guidelines were instrumental in establishing the foundation for the modern school social worker profession.
The services provided by school social workers have grown considerably over the years (Austin, 2018). Social workers in schools today deal with many problems by collaborating with students, parents, and faculty. Challenges in the classroom, behavioral issues, mental health issues, and conflicts in the home are all factors (UNICEF, 2021). They also combat problems like bullying and substance abuse and create welcoming school environments.
The modern social work field has its roots in several historical events. Social services and other specialists in mental health worked together in the early 19th century. More than a hundred child guidance clinics serving primarily middle-class clients had opened their doors by 1927 thanks to these collaborative efforts, which helped legitimize the field. By the middle of the 20th century, social work had become increasingly specialized and had shifted its emphasis toward community-based services. Today’s social workers can be found in various institutions, from classrooms to hospitals, mental health centers, and nonprofits. Finally, social work education has a significant impact on the development of social work as a profession. The role of school social workers has changed over time and is now essential to the well-being of schools, students, and their families. New versions of school social work have surfaced, while those that already existed have been systematized. It has also helped school social workers acquire the necessary resources to better assist the students and families they interact with. The mental health, social and emotional well-being, and broader growth of students are all supported by the hard work of school social service workers. Workers in schools’ social service departments act as intermediaries between the school and the community in many nations where this service is well-funded. Many facets of school policy depend heavily on the expertise of people in this field. Students who have been alluded to for special education services are invited to take part in the assessment process so their individual learning and social needs can be met in a way that considers their home and community settings. Service providers are in a distinctive position to assess the necessities of both students and their families and then link them with relevant local resources.
Theories of development
a) Jean Piaget-Theory of Cognitive Development
In the study of child growth and development, few ideas are as foundational as Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Teamwork with children and teenagers requires knowledge of this theory, which is indispensable for school social workers. According to Piaget, children go over four distinct phases of cognitive development, each involving a unique set of skills (Pakpahan & Saragih, 2022). These levels include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal operational stages of development. Between ages 0 and 2, children are in the “sensorimotor” stage. Infants and toddlers learn primarily through exploration and play. They know what psychologists call “object permanence,” or the idea that things exist even when we can’t see them. They develop the ability to integrate sensory and motor processes to investigate their environment.
Ages 2–7 fall within the preoperational window. During this time, kids grow into the concepts of symbols and language. They can use symbols to represent things and ideas, and they are developing a sense of time. But they still have trouble thinking logically and seeing things from other people’s points of view. Between the ages of seven and eleven, children enter the “concrete operational” stage of development. At this age, children become more rational in their thought processes and more empathic toward others’ points of view (Börnert-Ringleb & Wilbert, 2018). They also can do mental math, including addition and subtraction. However, they continue to have difficulty with abstract concepts and speculative scenarios. The formal operational stage (FOSS) occurs between eleven and adulthood (Börnert-Ringleb & Wilbert, 2018). Kids learn to think abstractly and logically about made-up scenarios during this developmental period. They can see things from different angles and comprehend advanced ideas.
A social worker in a school needs to be familiar with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in to recognize and tackle a child’s cognitive issues and difficulties (UCF, n.d.). The research results could also shed light on how to support children’s development and education best. Knowing that children in the preoperational stage struggle with rational reasoning can influence the choice of age-appropriate learning strategies, such as case studies and visual elements. The theory of cognitive development by Jean Piaget is suitable for a school social worker to gain insight into the development of children’s intellectual ability and the process through which they learn new information. By being aware of these phases, social workers can better adapt their methods to the specific requirements of each child they serve. A school social worker’s ability to guide students to their academic potential by applying Piaget’s theory is undeniable. Finally, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is an exciting concept for school social workers to grasp. It provides a basis for figuring out what goes into kids’ brain growth and what activities and techniques can help them learn and grow.
b) Freud-Psychosexual Development
The psychosexual theory of development postulated by Sigmund Freud has garnered much attention and study in psychology. The five stages of human development that Freud recognized have difficulties and disputes (Mcleod, 2022). Here, we’ll look at Freud’s theory from the perspective of an SSW’s growth. In the first 18 months of life, a person’s oral stage of psychosexual development occurs. Sucking and biting are the primary mechanism of oral enjoyment for a baby of such age. Children not given enough to do with their mouths may develop behaviors such as tobacco use and unhealthy eating later in life. Nail biting and gum chewing are two examples of oral fixations that a school social worker might improve. Time spent in the anal stage, the second stage (Gumiandari & Nafi’a, 2019), ranges from 18 months to three years. At this age, a child’s pride comes from learning toilet training skills. The child may develop an anal fixation and exhibit extreme neatness or messiness if they are not allowed to learn to manage their bowel function. The person’s need for control and stability as a school social worker may stem from an anal fixation.
The phallic stage, the third, lasts from around age three to about six. Here, a child’s genital adventure is a source of great joy. The child could also establish an Oedipus complex, wherein they get overly connected to one parent, notwithstanding being biologically closer to the other. A phallic fixation that can lead to sexual abnormalities or sexual activity can grow if the child does not work through this conflict. It’s feasible that the person’s phallic fixation helps improve their infatuation with their opposite-sex parent while working as a school social worker. The latency phase, the fourth stage, can last anywhere from six to twelve years (Allen, 2020). At this age, a child’s focus shifts from sexual desire to developing social and cognitive abilities. Excellent interpersonal and mental abilities may have been honed during this time, setting the stage for a fruitful career as a school social worker. The genital stage, the fifth and final stage, spans the years 12 and up into adulthood. The person’s sexual desires reignite, and they prioritize fostering interpersonal connections. The person’s situation may have thrived due to the healthy relationships they cultivated as a school social worker.
Finally, Freud’s psychosexual theory of development provides a basis for grasping the alterations that occur in people throughout their lives. A school social worker may demonstrate specific behavior patterns or inclinations due to the accumulation of fixations and conflicts encountered throughout life. However, one can conquer these fixations and mature into a productive and well-adjusted adult through contemplation and self-recognition.
Research Methods
a) Case studies
Helping students succeed academically and psychologically is a primary responsibility of school social workers. Case studies are used as a research tool and a hypothesis tester. Case studies provide in-depth accounts of a learner’s specific challenge or circumstance. They help us learn about each student’s strengths, vulnerabilities, and opportunities for growth so that we can tailor our support accordingly (Boston University, 2019). As a first step in developing a case study, school social workers often interview the student and their parents, teachers, and other school personnel. They might also carry out evaluations, anecdotes, and recommendations of student records relating to academic and behavioral performance. The goal is to gain a thorough perspective of the student’s condition and ability to be successful, factors leading to their difficulties using this data.
Once data collection is complete, social workers can use the case study to test the hypothesis and notify involvement planning. If a student has trouble showing up to class, a social worker might suppose that school-related stress is to be held responsible. Counseling and other forms of support may be integrated into an intervention strategy to assist the student in learning to cope with nervousness and increase their level of attendees. Interference efficacy can also be measured with case studies. School social workers may track data on the child’s behavior, educational achievement, and type of behavior over time. This information is used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention and adapt it if needed. Schoolchildren can use case studies for more than just research and hypothesis testing. Case studies are helpful for school social workers who want to advocate for better services and more help for struggling students. Case studies can also be used to call for the restructuring of ineffective policies or procedures at the school.
In conclusion, case studies are an incredible strategy for school social workers to gather information, evaluate hypotheses, and create efficient student intervention programs. They help guarantee that initiatives are customized to the student’s specific needs and difficulties by thoroughly comprehending those needs and problems. Case studies provide a valuable tool for school social workers to improve students’ academic and social consequences.
b) Surveys
The academic, social, and emotional success of students depends heavily on the work of school social workers. Surveys are a popular tool for school social workers to collect data and test hypotheses about student needs. Surveys help collect information in a broad range of research contexts. School social workers may employ a variety of surveys, including retrospective surveys, to better understand student needs. The purpose of a retrospective survey is to elicit information about past experiences. Researchers can collect data like a longitudinal survey without conducting a longitudinal survey by asking respondents about their past actions, attitudes, or experiences. School social workers can learn much about their students’ backgrounds and habits through retrospective surveys (Knox et al., 2020).
Finally, surveys are a standard tool for data collection and hypothesis testing for school social workers. Surveys are a valuable tool for collecting information in various research contexts. School social workers can comprehend their clients’ situations using surveys to collect information which can be utilized to ask critical questions, connect with the appropriate parties, and tailor services accordingly. By collecting data, SSW can better understand students’ requirements and enhance the school’s social work program.
Empirical studies
Rungsang et al. (2017) conducted a cross-sectional study to examine suicidal ideation among Thai adolescents using the Rungsang-Chaimongkol Model. A sample of 437 secondary school-aged Thais from a central province was selected using a multi-stage random sampling technique. The theoretical framework used in this study was based on the cognitive-behavioral model and a survey of the relevant literature. However, the behavioral therapy model does not theorize the impacts of personality characteristics and feelings of worth, which have been discovered in empirical studies to play a role in the development of suicidal ideation. Direct predictors of suicidal ideation ranged in strength from stressful events and general distress to negative personality traits. Positive correlations were found between exposure to stressful events and suicidal ideation. It demonstrated that adolescent suicidal ideation was more prevalent among those who experienced loss and relational difficulty or problems. The findings imply that a future longitudinal study with the same participants over time would yield more accurate risk factors of adolescent suicidal ideation.
Tang et al. (2022) set out to confirm whether adolescent health education-based peer education increases resilience. Factors such as social tension and competitive forces, which have risen as a consequence of the most rapid growth of the social and economic system and the shift in social structure, prompted the study. Adolescents’ negative emotions and the prevalence of mental health issues are rising as they face greater academic demands and psychological pressure. A total of 1,613 students participated in the cluster randomized controlled trial as either an intervention or a control group. Results showed that adolescents’ ability to concentrate, emotional stability, and social support could all benefit from peer education based on adolescent health education. Peer education based on adolescent education can significantly enhance attention to task, emotional regulation, social support, and overall resilience. Adolescents’ strengths can be substantially improved by focusing on positive thinking in the face of adversity and familial support.
Description of this occupation
The duties of the SSW include maximizing the well-being of families and the children in their care, as well as enhancing their social and psychological functioning. Children who have been abandoned or abused may also be placed in foster care, and parents may be given assistance (Onet, 2018). Teenage pregnancy, poor behavior, and absence from school are all issues that are tackled head-on in classroom settings. The following are examples of other possible duties. The first step is to keep reports and case histories. Second, conduct interviews with clients on an individual, family, or group basis to gather information about their needs, as well as their resources, skills, and challenges. Help children with disabilities, abuse, or poverty by acting as a liaison between the child and their homes, schools, family support services, youth care clinics, courts, protective services, doctors, and other contacts. Fourth, work with clients to create service plans, review those plans, and then assess whether those plans were met. Finally, deal with legal matters like child abuse and discipline by participating in hearings and offering testimony to guide custody decisions.
Some of the technical skills needed for the SSW are EasyCBM, Microsoft Access, student information systems, Microsoft Outlook, EMR software, and Ms. Excel. For the worker’s requirements, their skills involve active listening, speaking, critical thinking, social perception, judgment, and decision-making. Finally, they must have sufficient knowledge of customer and personal service, psychology, therapy, counseling, the English language, and administration. They must be proficient in office-related tasks such as word processing, file management, stenography, transcription, form design, and workplace jargon.
Personal experiences
I have made the most of my time in college by getting involved in required and elective courses and social activities. I have exploited many educational opportunities, which have given me a solid grounding in my chosen profession. These courses give me the theoretical background and practical abilities to make a difference in the world. I have also used my school’s research resources to participate in projects that have developed my discipline. I have taken advantage of several internships outside of school that have given me valuable experience in my field. For instance, my experience as an intern at a local charity honed my abilities in project management and event preparation. In addition, I did an internship at a research center that gave me valuable experience conducting research and working in a scientific setting. Internships like these have been crucial in helping me gain real-world experience and apply what I have learned in the classroom.
I have gained experience in both leadership and teamwork through my internships and extracurricular activities. For instance, I have participated in the student government association and a community service club. These groups have allowed me to hone my organizational, teamwork, and leadership skills while exposing me to new people and experiences. I have made the most of my college time by participating in required and elective courses and extracurricular activities. The education I have received, combined with the skills I have honed and the experiences I have gained through internships and extracurricular activities, has prepared me well for the challenges of the professional world. The sum of these experiences has made me a well-rounded person, ready to excel in my chosen field.
References
Allen, C. (2020, February 1). Sigmund freud, karen horney, nancy chodorow: Viewpoints on psychodynamic theory. Pdx.pressbooks.pub; Portland State University Library. https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/thebalanceofpersonality/chapter/chapter-4-the-psychodynamic-perspective/
Austin, M. J. (2018). Social work management practice, 1917–2017: A history to inform the future. Social Service Review, 92(4), 548–616. https://doi.org/10.1086/701278
Beckman, M. (2019, October 1). 1.1: Introduction to social work. Social Sci LibreTexts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Social_Work_and_Human_Services/Introduction_to_Social_Work_(Gladden_et_al.)/01%3A_Chapters/1.01%3A_Introduction_to_Social_Work
Börnert-Ringleb, M., & Wilbert, J. (2018). The association of strategy use and concrete-operational thinking in primary school. Frontiers in Education, 3(38). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00038
Boston University. (2019). Using case studies to teach» center for teaching & learning | Boston university. Bu.edu. https://www.bu.edu/ctl/teaching-resources/using-case-studies-to-teach/
Fisher, R. A. (2020). History and development of school social work within professional organizations. Encyclopedia of Social Work. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.1328
Gumiandari, S., & Nafi’a, I. (2019). Gender bias is constructed in Freud’s concept of human psychosexual development (an analytical study based on Islamic psychological analysis). PALASTREN Jurnal Studi Gender, 12(1), 211. https://doi.org/10.21043/palastren.v12i1.3315
Knox, K. M., Gherardi, S., & Stoner, A. (2020). Rules, roles, and practices: Exploring school social worker preparation for practice. International Journal of School Social Work, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.4148/2161-4148.1057
Mcleod, S. (2022, November 3). Freud’s psychosexual theory and five stages of human development. Simply Psychology. https://simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html#:~:text=Sigmund%20Freud%20proposed%20that%20personality
Pakpahan, F. H., & Saragih, M. (2022). Theory of cognitive development by jean Piaget. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.52622/joal.v2i2.79
Rungsang, B., Chaimongkol, N., Deoisres, W., & Wongnam, P. (2017). Suicidal ideation among Thai adolescents: An empirical test of a causal model. Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research, 21(2), 97–107. https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/PRIJNR/article/view/62887
Simmons University. (2023). The evolution of social work: Historical milestones. Online.simmons.edu. https://online.simmons.edu/blog/evolution-social-work-historical-milestones/
SSWAA. (n.d.). History of school social work. Sswaa. https://www.sswaa.org/history
Sweifach, J. S. (2017). A look behind the curtain at social work supervision in interprofessional practice settings: Critical themes and pressing practical challenges. European Journal of Social Work, 22(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691457.2017.1357020
Tang, Y., Diao, H., Jin, F., Pu, Y., & Wang, H. (2022). The effect of peer education based on adolescent health education on the resilience of children and adolescents: A cluster randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE, 17(2), e0263012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263012
UCF. (n.d.). Cognitive development. Pressbooks.online.ucf.edu. https://pressbooks.online.ucf.edu/lumenpsychology/chapter/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development/
UNICEF. (2021). Social service workers in schools: Their role in addressing violence against children and other child protection concerns. https://www.unicef.org/media/117456/file/SSW%20in%20Schools%20Technical%20Note.pdf
write